Specifically the EXTANT primates, i.e., the species that are still alive today: these include some prosimians, some monkeys, & some apes (-next:

Primates!

Specifically the EXTANT primates, i.e., the species that are still alive today: these include some prosimians, some monkeys, & some apes (-next: fossil hominins, who are extinct)

Taxonomy What are primates?

Overview: What are primates? Taxonomy of living things Distinguishing primate characteristics Primate taxonomy: distinguishing characteristics within the Order Primate Prosimians (Strepsirhines) Lorises Lemurs Tarsiers (?) Anthropoids (Haplorhines) Platyrrhines Cebids Atelines Callitrichids Catarrhines Cercopithecoids Cercopithecines Colobines Hominoids Hylobatids Pongids Hominins

Taxonomy: Hierarchical and Linnean (between Kingdoms and Species, but really not a totally accurate representation) Subspecies Species Genus Family Infraorder Order Class Phylum Kingdom

Tree of life -based on traits we think we observe -Beware anthropocentrism, the concept that humans may regard themselves as the central and most significant entities in the universe, or that they assess reality through an exclusively human perspective.

Taxonomy: Kingdoms (6 here)

Kingdom Animalia Ingestive heterotrophs Lack cell wall Motile at at least some part of their lives Embryos have a blastula stage (a hollow ball of cells) Usually an internal digestive chamber

Phyla in Kingdom Animalia Phylum Meaning Group Acanthocephala Thorny head Thorny-headed worms Acoelomorpha Without gut Acoels Annelida Little ring Segmented worms Arthropoda Jointed foot Arthropods Brachiopoda Arm foot Lamp shells Bryozoa Moss animals Moss animals, sea mats Chaetognatha Longhair jaw Arrow worms Chordata Cord Chordates Cnidaria Stinging nettle Coelenterates Ctenophora Comb bearer Comb jellies Cycliophora Wheel carrying Symbion Echinodermata Spiny skin Sea Urchins Echiura Spine tail Spoon worms Entoprocta Inside anus Goblet worm Gastrotricha Hair stomach Meiofauna Gnathostomulida Jaw orifice Jaw worms Hemichordata Half cord Acorn worms Kinorhyncha Motion snout Mud dragons Loricifera Corset bearer Brush heads Phylum Meaning Group Mesozoa Middle animals Mesozoans Micrognathozoa Tiny jaw animals Mollusca Thin shell Mollusks / molluscs Myxozoa Slime animals Nematoda Thread like Round worms Nematomorpha Thread form Horsehair worms Nemertea A sea nymph Ribbon worms Onychophora Claw bearer Velvet worms Orthonectida Straight swim Phoronida Zeus' mistress Horseshoe worms Placozoa Tubular animals Platyhelminthes Flat worms Flat worms Porifera Pore bearer Sponges Priapulida Penis Priapulid worms Rhombozoa Lozenge animal Rotifera Wheel bearer Rotifers Sipuncula Small tube Peanut worms Tardigrada Slow step Water bears Xenoturbellida Strange flatworm

Phylum Chordata Hollow dorsal nerve cord Trends Increasing cephalization Increased activity levels Increased predatory lifestyle

Phylum Chordata Subphylum Urochordata (Tunicates: filter-feeding sea squirts) Subphylum Cephalochordata (Lancelets) Subphylum Vertebrata (chordates with backbones) Infraphylum Agnatha (jawless vertebrates) Infraphylum Gnathosomata (jawed vertebrates) Superclass Osteichthytes (bony fishes) Superclass Tetraposa (four-legged vertebrates)

Subphylum Vertebrata BACKBONES Paired kidneys Heart, aorta Major transitions in some ancestral vertebrates Superclass: Tetrapoda (4 limbs to locomote on land) Amniotes Shell, yolk, amnion, internal fertilization Amnion = a membrane building the amniotic sac that surrounds and protects an embryo. It is developed in reptiles, birds, and mammals, but not in amphibians and and fish

Class mammalia Therapsids were transitional mammal-like reptiles Occupied a nocturnal niche that dinosaurs didn t dominate Increased metabolism to keep warm (bugs) Chewing (mastication); specialized teeth Legs under body to turn more easily Mammals Survived age of dinosaurs First were tiny, nocturnal insectivores Escaped predation Survived global cooling Adaptive Radiation(~ 0-65 mya) Three groups: Monotremes Marsupials Placental Eutherians

Mammals What features distinguish mammals? Hair made of keratin Active metabolism endothermic hair and fat for insulation closed circulatory system + 4-chambered heart respiratory system connected to circulatory system diaphragm, a powerful muscle to enhance respiration Reproductive characteristics Amniote egg without shell retained in uterus Viviparity Lactation Cephalization Large Brains-key to human evolution Complex, social behaviors including parental care

Monotremes Platypuses and Spiny Anteaters Lay reptilian, yolked eggs! But have hair and produce milk to nourish their young Clear that modern monotremes are the survivors of an early branching of the mammal tree; a later branching is thought to have led to the marsupial and placental groups the egg is retained for some time within the mother, who actively provides the egg with nutrients. Monotremes also lactate, but have no defined nipples, excreting the milk from their mammary glands via openings in their skin Extant in Australia and New Guinea, but widespread before that based on fossil data Marsupials Opossums, kangaroos, koalas, sugar gliders Born early Complete embryonic development in pouch Nourished by milk (mammary glands) Diversified in Australia, few left in the Americas (e.g., the opossum) Convergent Evolution with Placental (Eutherian) Mammals Eutherians (Placentals) Long pregnancy Complete development in utero Nourished by a placenta fetal membranes (chorion) and maternal tissues intimately associated for gas exchange, nutrient supply, and waste removal! Mammals

More on Mammals About 5400 species around today Particular jaw feature defines mammals to paleontologists Vivipary in many (but not limited to mammals some sharks, etc.) Most are placental Most are terrestrial

Order Macroscelidea: elephant shrews (Africa) Order Afrosoricida: tenrecs and golden moles (Africa) Order Tubulidentata: aardvark (Africa south of the Sahara) Order Hyracoidea: hyraxes or dassies (Africa, Arabia) Order Proboscidea: elephants (Africa, Southeast Asia) Order Sirenia: dugong and manatees (ctropical) Order Pilosa: sloths and anteaters (Neotropical) Order Cingulata: armadillos (Americas) (pink fairy armadillo here) Order Scandentia: treeshrews (Southeast Asia) Order Dermoptera: flying lemurs or colugos (Southeast Asia) Order Primates: lemurs, bushbabies, monkeys, apes Order Lagomorpha: pikas, rabbits, hares (Eurasia, Africa, Americas) Order Rodentia: rodents Order Erinaceomorpha: hedgehogs Order Soricomorpha: moles, shrews, solenodons Order Chiroptera: bats Order Cetartiodactyla: whales, dolphins and porpoises, even-toed ungulates, including pigs, hippopotamus, camels, giraffe, deer, antelope, cattle, sheep, goats Order Perissodactyla: odd-toed ungulates, including horses, donkeys, zebras, tapirs, and rhinoceroses Order Pholidota: pangolins or scaly anteaters (Africa, South Asia) Order Carnivora: carnivores Here: pink armadillo Orders in the Class Mammalia

Order: Primates What is a primate? Lots of diversity

Diversity...200-300 species

Size

Lots of variation, but there are trends

Primates Motor adaptations Large size variation across taxa Five digits on hands and feet: pentadactylism Mobile limbs Nails instead of claws (on at least one digit) Grasping digits with tactile pads (and fingerprints) Erect posture with extensive head rotation Rapid and precise muscle control Opposable hallus (big toe) and thumb (pincer grip) Prehensile hands and/or feet Well-developed clavicles (collarbones)

Primates Sensory adaptations Enlargement of eyes Color vision Binocular vision: overlapping fields of vision Stereoscopic vision and forward facing eyes: neural wiring: sensory information from each eye relayed to both sides of brain depth perception + accurate distance estimation

Primates Cranial Adaptations Reduced snout and olfaction Dental characteristics Heterodont dentition (canines, incisors, molars and premolars) Dental arcade (e.g., 2123 or 2133) In most groups, 32 or 36 adult teeth

Teeth

Primates Life history characteristics Delayed maturation Increased infant dependency Long gestation (pregnancy) Long lifespan Low reproductive rate Large, complex brain

Primates Gregarious (many permanently live in groups) Male-female social associations Singleton births (in most species) Arboreal Diurnal Grooming (practical and social functions)

Primates How many species? 200-300(academic debates, hybrids ) Future DNA sequencing may help sort it out, but maybe not, as genes may or may not address issues of human views on essentialism (c.f., Bloom s book of recent) New primate species are found every few years or so, in swampy areas that primatologists have a hard time getting around in Extinction: pets and bushmeat (the next slide is rough) Lavasoa Dwarf Lemur dicsovered in 2012 on Madagascar

Bushmeat and pets

Nonhuman (and undomesticated) animals are NOT meant to be pets These are animals with social lives that are significant: primates tend to be social, are NOT domesticated, and do not make good pets Food and trophies ( a Western construct?) Discussion?

Prosimians (Strepsirhines) Loris group Lemur group Tarsiers (?) Anthropoids (Haplorhines) Platyrrhines Cebids Atelines Callitrichids Catarrhines Cercopithecoids Cercopithecines Colobines Hominoids Hylobatids Pongids Hominids Order Primates

Rhinarium = nose wet, connected to upper lip strepsirhine Dry, not connected to lip haplorhine

Primates The order Primates consists of two major suborders: the Prosimians and the Anthropoidea. The prosimians were the first of the suborders to evolve; they are often called the "lower primates" The word prosimian literally means "pre-monkey." Strepsirhines = prosimians Haplorhines = anthropoids (monkeys and apes)

Primates Prosimians Dental comb Postorbital opening Smaller brain Grooming claw Many nocturnal species More seasonal breeding Anthropoids Dental comb absent Postorbital closure Larger brain Nails on all digits Few nocturnal species Less seasonal breeding

Postorbital Closure

Dental comb Lemur catta

Prosimians Nose Moist, naked rhinarium with the upper lip attached internally; greater reliance on olfaction than Haplorhine Facial expression: less range possible (than for Haplorhini), partially because of attached upper lip; also far fewer structural featuress like tendons and muscles in their faces Grooming "claw" on pedal digit for several (2nd digit) Teeth dental formula (with some exceptions): 2133/2133 dental comb: elongated incisors used for grooming Reproduction is generally seasonal Activity Period often (but not always) nocturnal (or cathemeral) Many diurnal prosimians on Madagascar (where no diurnal monkeys or apes occur) nocturnal species have large eyes possessing tapetum lucidum occasionally large & diurnal Infant care nocturnal species often "park" their infants or cache them in nests while foraging cathemeral & diurnal species usually carry them

Prosimians Lemuriformes: lemur group Lemuridae (lemurs) Indriidae (indris, avahis, sifakas) Daubentoniidae (aye-ayes) Lorisiformes: loris group Loridae (lorises, pottos, angwantibos) Galagonidae (galagos) Tarsiformes (tarsiers)???

Lemuriformes (the lemur family ) All only on Madagascar s perimeter (extinct on mainland) Lots of nocturnal species

22 or so mostly arboreal species All members of lemur group are only on Madagascar s perimeter (extinct on mainland) Madagascar

Taxonomy: Prosimians (lemur group) Family Body size* Activity Period General Social Pattern "Special" Features Cheirogaleidae Mouse & dwarf lemurs Lepilemuridae Sportive lemurs Tiny Nocturnal Solitary - give birth to twins & cache them in nests - hibernate & accumulate fat seasonally (in tails) Small Nocturnal Solitary - coprophagy - sluggish Lemuridae "True" lemurs Medium Nocturnal Diurnal Cathemeral Solitary Social monogamy Large multi-male, multifemale groups - the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) = only significantly terrestrial prosimian - female dominance over males sometimes Indriidae Indri & sifaka & avahi Small (avahi ) Nocturnal (avahi) Solitary (avahi) - female dominance over males sometimes Medium (sifaka) Large (indri ) Dirunal (indri, sifaka) Multi-male, multi-female groups (sifaka) Social monogamy (indri)

Lemur (lemur group) Body size Activity Period General Social Pattern "Special" Features Medium Nocturnal Diurnal Cathemeral Solitary Social monogamy Large multimale, multifemale groups - the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta) = only significantly terrestrial prosimian - female dominance over males sometimes

Lepilemur ( sportive lemur; lemur group) Body size Activity Period General Social Pattern "Special" Features Small Nocturnal Solitary Coprophagy, sluggish

Mouse lemur (lemur group) Body size Activity Period General Social Pattern "Special" Features Tiny Nocturnal Solitary - give birth to twins & cache them in nests - hibernate & accumulate fat seasonally (in tails)

Aye Aye (lemur group) Body size Activity Period General Social Pattern "Special" Features Medium Nocturnal Solitary - continuously growing incisors (rodent-like) - thin spindly middle finger = largest nocturnal primate

Others in the lemur group Indri Avahi ( wooly lemur )

Others in the lemur group Sifaka (hoppers because of long, springy legs that let them jump 30 feet in trees) http://www.arkive.org/verreauxssifaka/propithecus-verreauxi/ video-06b.html

Others in the lemur group Body size Activity Period General Social Pattern "Special" Features Small (avahi ) Medium (sifaka) Large (indri ) Nocturnal (avahi) Dirunal (indri, sifaka) Solitary (avahi) Multi-male, multifemale groups (sifaka) Social monogamy (indri) - female dominance over males sometimes

Lorisiformes (loris group) Distribution (Africa and Asia)

Loris

Bushbaby (galago: loris-group prosimian)

Potto

Tarsier

Tarsier map

Tarsier issue in classification: prosimians or anthropoids? order: Primates suborder: Prosimii Anthropoidea infraorder : Lemuriformes Lorisiformes Tarsiformes Tarsiformes? family: Lemuridae Indriidae Daubentoniidae Loridae Galagonidae Tarsiidae species: lemurs indris avahis sifakas aye-ayes lorises pottos angwantibos galagos tarsiers monkeys apes humans

Anthropoids Haplorhines Dry, unconnected noses Africa, Asia, South America Monkeys, apes and humans ***prosimians are NOT monkeys Two groups Catarhines Platyrhines

Rhine = nose Catarrhine: Old World Primate Platyrrhine: New World Primate

Old/New World

Differences Between Platyrrhines and Catarrhines

Platyrrhine vs. Catarrhine Dentition: 2133 vs. 2123 (usually)

New World Monkeys

Ceboidea Family Subfamily Common Names Body size General Social Pattern Some Special Features Cebidae Squirrel monkey Small Large, multi-male, multi-female groups - strictly seasonal breeding Capuchin monkey Medium - large brain - tool use -adaptable & resourceful (like Old World macaques) - weakly prehensile tail Callitrichidae tamarins, marmosets small polyandry Atelidae Pithecinae Uakaris & Sakis Medium Socially monogamous Other? Alouattinae Howler monkeys Large One-male, multifemale groups ("harems") twins, high paternal investment, reproductive suppression red-faced uakari:sexual selection? Swamp dwellers (hard to study) - LOUD howling - prehensile tail (strong!) Atelinae Spider monkey, wooly monkey, woolly spider monkey Very large Large fusion-fission communities - prehensile tails (strong & dextrous!) Interesting social patterns (kind of like chimps and bonobos)

Cebids vs. Callitrichids

Callitrichids juvenile golden lion tamarin Pygmy marmoset (smallest primate)

Callitrichids Golden Lion Tamarins Emperor Tamarin Moustached Tamarin Cotton Top Tamarin Common Marmoset

Atelines Red-faced uakari Howler monkey

Atelines: prehensile tails Spider monkeys

Cebids Squirrel monkey Capuchin monkey

Catarrhines Cercopithecoids: the Old World monkeys Cercopithecines Colobinae Hominoidea: the apes

Old World Monkeys

Cercopithecoidea

Cercopithecines Gelada baboon Hamadryas baboon Japanese macaque

Cercopithecines: female-bonded Celebes macaque

Colobines Black and white colobus Snub-nosed langur

Colobines Proboscis monkey

Colobines eat a lot of leaves

Hominoidea: the Apes Hylobatidae Hominidae Category Common names The lesser apes Gibbons and siamangs The great apes The human apes Orangutans Gorillas Chimpanzees Bonobos humans Distribution Southeast Asia Borneo, Sumatra -Lowland gorilla in West Central Africa -Mountain gorilla in volcanic mountains bordering Rwanda, Uganda, and Congo Tropical rainforests and tropical forests of West, East, and North-central Africa Central African Rainforests South of the big bend of the Congo River Global (plus?) Size Large (5-11 kg) Huge (35-70 kg) Huge (90-150 kg) Huge (30-45 kg) Huge (30-45 kg) Huge Grouping Pattern Socially monogamous Solitary Group (1 alpha male, his harem, and their kids) Large fissionfusion communities Large fissionfusion communities Large multimal/ multifemae communitie s

Ape Distribution

Brachiation gibbon siamang

Duetting (territoriality)

Monogamy

Orangutan

Gorilla

Gorilla: mountain vs. lowland

Chimpanzee

Bonobo

Human

Primates Lots of morphological variation Size, colors, dentition Lots of variation in social group structure (many males and many females in a group vs. monogamous pairs, etc.) Lots of variance in social activity (solitary aye aye vs. the highly gregarious capuchins and cercopithecines) Lots of variance in locomotion Lots of variance in diets Lots of variance in susceptibility to predation (e.g., large vs. small animals) What accounts for this variance?

Primate Behavioral Ecologists Primatologists who try to figure out relationships between ecology, morphology, behavior, and sociality Includes social variables (e.g., dominance and subordinance, fighting, mating, genetic relatedness), ecological variables (e.g., seasonal foods, the presence of predators), morphological variables (e.g., a very long gut), etc.

Some Examples Colobines (OWM) and howler monkeys (NWM) eating leaves, but having very different energy levels Male gorillas having proportionately larger teeth than females, even though they eat leaves, not meat When newly joining a group, male langurs will selectively kill most or all infants who are still nursing, then immediately mate with the mothers (who agree to it!)

Goodall Films Four classic films from the 1960s of Goodall s early work with Gombe (Tanzania East Africa) chimpanzees Introduction to Chimpanzee Behavior Infant Development Feeding and Food Sharing Tool Using

The Hadza The Hadza are an ethnic group in central Tanzania, living around Lake Eyasi in the central Rift Valley and in the neighboring Serengeti Plateau. The Hadza number under 1000. Some 300-400 Hadza live as, huntergatherers much as they have for thousands, or even tens of thousands, of years; according to some anthropologists, they are of the last few functioning hunter-gatherers in Africa. The Hadza are not closely related to any other people. While traditionally considered an East African branch of the Khoisan peoples, primarily because their language has clicks (see Pinker 167-168). The Hadza language appears to be an isolate, unrelated to or very distantly related to any other language. (e.g., 8 noun classes). The Hadza subsist by hunting and gathering-foraging which is what hominins (including our ancestors) did for millions of years during and prior to the evolution of anatomically modern humans The lifestyle of the Hadza may be one of the world s current best indicators of what life was like when humans evolved Film (39 mins.) and how to take notes during a film

Hand Notes on The Hadza

Some notes on The Hadza Huts put up by women They are hunter-gatherers (HGs) Men hunt alone Women gather plant foods Hunt many impala Men gamble in downtime, winning and losing mainly arrows but also bees, honey; gambling losses do not cause significant hardships ad arrows can be replaced by making new ones within hours to days No territoriality--people HG anywhere they want, unlike in most other HGs studied to the time the film was made All hunting by adult men is with bow and arrow; no traps, snares, or nets; the force require to pull a bow is strong--throws off accuracy but implants arrow more deeply; 90% misses in hunting (often due to inaccuracy point above) Arrows with metal heads traded with other groups (for, e.g., honey) Majority of food from wild berries and roots/tubers, though they consider themselves meat-eaters Berries are abundant and many are eaten on the spot; food not stored past a day s worth of eating (some seasonal variation) Women about 2 hrs a day gathering all the food they need Baobob trees have tasty fruits (ground and cooked to a porridge); some trees better than others; berries are not like sweet wildberries--harder to eat; roots and tubers cooked; water from underground sources and water trapped in tree hollows that are scarce during the dry season Baobob and other locations have bees with honey and grubs Honey can be traded to other groups for western items like pots, tobacco, cloth, axes, iron/aluminum, beads One male duo did not find sufficient honey in one tree to walked a few miles to another known bee source Only collect enough food to last until the next day Dry months = more berries; wet months = more roots/tubers which are then more succulent Grandmas collect large tubers and share them with everyone in the camp--not just their specific families Hadza are nomads who only live in a particular camp for up to a few weeks Sometimes live on rock shelters--important returned-to shelters are on hills which provide a good vantage point of surrounding areas An impala is killed; hidden from scavengers like vultures and hyenas until the hunter comes back with others to help carry the carcass to camp The fat, not so much the meat, is what is prized in the impala--most hunted foods are high in protein but low in fat Boys practice hunting at young ages with wooden-tipped bows and arrows Boys catch a hyrax and use it to procure additional hyraxes, than kill & eat them all (no waste and yet no saving food)