Leisure Motivation of Participants and Nonparticipants in Campus Recreational Sports Programs

Leisure Motivation of Participants and Nonparticipants in Campus Recreational Sports Programs By Brent A. Beggs, Ph.D., James E. Stitt, M.S., and Daniel J. Elkins, M.S. The factors that motivate college students to participate in leisure activities play a key role in better understanding participation patterns in campus recreational sports. This study utilized the Leisure Motivation Scale developed by Beard and Ragheb (1983) to determine factors that motivated college students leisure choices. The purpose of this study was to examine motivational differences in students who participated regularly in campus recreational sports and students who did not regularly participate in campus recreational sports. The sample consisted of 631 students from two universities. The results indicated that students who did not participate regularly in campus recreational sports were seeking rewards from their leisure such as rest, escape and solitude, as well as the opportunity to use their imagination and learn. Students who regularly participated in campus recreational sports revealed that they were motivated to participate because of physical activity, challenge, and competition. In addition, differences in gender and overall motivation for leisure participation were examined. Why do students choose to participate in recreational sports programs? What factors contribute to a student choosing not to participate in recreational sports programs such as intramurals, club sports, fitness, and informal sports programs? Are individuals not motivated to participate in recreational sports activities because these traditional programs and services are no longer adequately fulfilling their needs? An understanding of individual motivation, as it relates to participation, will help develop a deeper conceptualization of leisure motivation 65

66 RECREATIONAL SPORTS JOURNAL VOL 28 NO 1 in a recreational sports setting and provide valuable information to administrators of recreational sports programs. The concept of motivation refers to forces that initiate, direct, and sustain human behavior (Iso-Ahola, 1999). The model of motivation developed by Mannell and Kleiber (1997) suggests that people possess a multitude of needs, motives, desires or expectations that lead to certain behaviors. Leisure motivation has been studied in a variety of settings by researchers including: London, Crandall, and Fitzgibbons (1977), Tinsley and Kass (1978), Crandall (1980), Mitchell (1983), Hirschman (1984), Deci and Ryan (1985), Iso-Ahola (1989), Driver, Tinsley, and Manfredo (1991), and Ewert (1994). Studies by Iso-Ahola and Allen (1982) and Kanters and Forrester (1997) explore leisure motivation in a campus recreational sports setting. Both studies examined intramural program participants who had participated in different levels of competition. Iso-Ahola and Allen found differences influenced by the nature of participation, individual differences such as gender, and the social setting in which the activity took place. Kanters and Forrester also report differences based on gender and determined that primary motivational factors were social and competency/mastery factors. These factors were derived from the use of the Leisure Motivation Scale (LMS) developed by Beard and Ragheb (1983). The LMS was developed in an attempt to standardize measures of leisure motivation. This scale classifies motives for participation such as intellectual, social, competence/mastery, and stimulus avoidance. The intellectual dimension of leisure motivation refers to mental stimulation such as cognitive learning or the opportunity to use one s imagination. The social component is the need for interpersonal relationships. The competency/mastery factor explains motivation in terms of competition and challenge. The stimulus avoidance dimension refers to escape and restoration.

BEGGS, STITT AND ELKINS 67 In addition to the work by Kanters and Forester (1997), the LMS has been used frequently by other researchers to examine leisure motivation. Studies by Lounsbury and Polik (1992), Hsieh (1998), Ryan and Glendon (1998), Murray and Nakajima (1999), Starzyk, Reddon, and Friel (2000), Wickham, Hanson, Shechtman, and Ashton (2000) each used the LMS to measure leisure motivation. Research on motivation in campus recreational sports has focused on regular users of recreational sports programs. Little attention has been given to examining students who are nonusers of recreational sports and this is a research area that needs to be pursued (National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association, 2003). Studying nonparticipant motivations could illuminate gaps in existing recreational sports program offerings and may suggest that a broader array of activities is necessary to attract students who do not currently participate. In addition, if students who are not regular users of campus recreational sports are motivated to participate in leisure activities by different factors than students who are regular users, then marketing strategies could be developed to promote other aspects of campus recreational sports programs. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to examine motivational factors (intellectual, social, competency/mastery, and stimulus avoidance) that influenced the participation or nonparticipation of college students in campus recreational sports. Methods Survey research was utilized to collect data. The questionnaire used in this study consisted of two sections. The first section was a demographic section similar to that used by Young, Ross, & Barcelona (2003) in obtaining data on education level, gender, place of residence, marital status, and whether respondents were regular participants in campus recreational sports.

68 RECREATIONAL SPORTS JOURNAL VOL 28 NO 1 The second section of the questionnaire consisted of the LMS that focused on motivational factors for participation in leisure activities. This section contained 32 items that subsumed four factors: intellectual, social, competency/mastery, and stimulus avoidance. The items were measured using a five-point Likert scale (1=never true; 5=always true). The overall instrument reliability in this study was 0.92, and the reliability of the subscales ranged between 0.85 and 0.93 indicating a strong measure of reliability. The study was conducted on two college campuses, both located in the Midwest. The campuses varied in size and the campus recreational services offered were also different in scale. Students who participated in the study were selected from classes that offered a sample representative of the university enrollment with regard to gender and education level. The questionnaire was administered in the spring of 2003 to a total sample of 650 students from the two campuses. Results The total number of respondents in the study was 650. Listwise deletion of 19 subjects who failed to properly complete the questionnaire was implemented, reducing the total number of subjects in the analysis to 631. The subjects in the study were analyzed based on gender and whether they were regular participants in campus recreational sports. The strongest indicators of motivation for leisure participation in all subjects were to be active (M=4.34), and to keep in shape physically (M=4.28). Both of these variables were subsumed in the competency/mastery factor of leisure motivation. The items that received the least support as influences in leisure motivation were to slow down (M=2.66), because I like to be alone (M=2.82), and to rest (M=2.99). These variables were subsumed in the stimulus avoidance factor of leisure motivation. In addition, the data was analyzed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and four factors were extracted and rotated using a varimax rotation. As seen in Table 1, the factor that explained the

BEGGS, STITT AND ELKINS 69 Table 1: Total Percent of Variance Explained by Motivational Factors Competency/ Social Mastery Avoidance Intellectual Stimulus Grouping Overall 31.62 14.34 9.51 7.71 Male 18.55 18.28 13.56 12.52 Female 14.20 15.75 12.69 11.18 Nonparticipant 15.34 17.11 12.38 13.23 Participant 18.52 17.06 13.80 10.56 most overall variance was the competency/mastery factor (31.62%) and the total amount of variance explained by the factor structure was 63.18 percent. Motivation and Gender Calculation of the Wilks Lambda statistic (0.84) indicates that males and females differed significantly with respect to motivation (χ2 = 108.31, p<0.001). The canonical correlation of the discriminant function indicates a moderate relationship between motivation and gender (0.40). As seen in Table 2, univariate F-tests revealed significant differences on 15 of the 32 items. Women were significantly more likely to be motivated to learn about things around me (p=0.04), to learn about myself (p =0.002), to discover new things (p =0.02), and to be creative (p =0.03). These items were subsumed in the intellectual factor. Further analysis of the factor means revealed that women were more likely than men to be motivated by intellectual variables (p=0.03). Factor means also indicated that women were more likely to be motivated to participate in leisure activities by social variables (p<0.001). Women were significantly more motivated to build friendships with others (p <0.001), to interact with others (p <0.001), to develop close relationships (p<0.001), to meet new and different people (p<0.001), and to gain a feeling of belonging (p=0.004). There was also a significant difference in men and women in the stimulus avoidance factor (p<0.001). Women were significantly more motivated to slow down (p=0.04), because I sometimes like to

70 RECREATIONAL SPORTS JOURNAL VOL 28 NO 1 be alone (p<0.001), to relax physically (p<0.001), to relax mentally (p=0.01), to rest (p=0.01), and to relieve stress and tension (p=0.02). Examination of the competency/mastery factor revealed no significant difference between men and women. However, men were significantly more motivated by the variable to be good at doing them (p=0.01). Further examination of the factors through PCA indicated that the amount of variance explained by the factors and the factor structure varied by gender (Table 1). The factor that explained the greatest percent of variance for men was the competency/mastery factor (18.55%). The factor that explained the most variance for women was the intellectual factor (15.75%). The social factor explained the least amount of variance in the factor structure for both men (12.52%) and women (11.18%). Motivation and Participation The sample for this phase of the study was based on the measure of regular participation in campus recreational activities established by Young et al. (2003). This determination was reflective of the respondent s answer to the question, have you participated regularly (at least once per week) for a period of two or more months in a recreational sport activity on campus? As with Young et al. (2003), recreational sports activities were defined as any cooperative/competitive activity in the game form participated in voluntarily, such as intramural sports, outdoor adventures, sport clubs, or informal/fitness activities provided by campus recreational services. Calculation of the Wilks Lambda statistic (0.90) indicates that college students who participate regularly in campus recreational sport activities and nonparticipants in campus recreational sport activities differ significantly with respect to motivation (χ2 = 65.308, p<0.001). The canonical correlation of the discriminant function indicated a marginal relationship between motivation and regular participation (0.31).

BEGGS, STITT AND ELKINS 71 Table 2: Motivation Variables for Participation in Leisure Activities by Gender Male Female Variable M SD M SD p To learn about things around me 2.92 1.02 3.07 0.85 0.04 To satisfy my curiosity 3.17 0.99 3.20 0.94 0.71 To explore new ideas 3.33 1.05 3.46 0.88 0.11 To learn about myself 3.12 1.09 3.36 0.96 0.002 To expand my knowledge 3.38 1.09 3.50 0.90 0.13 To discover new things 3.49 1.01 3.66 0.82 0.02 To be creative 3.34 1.08 3.51 0.91 0.03 To use my imagination 3.23 1.10 3.32 0.98 0.25 To build friendships with others 3.63 1.04 3.99 0.91 0.001 To interact with others 3.81 0.98 4.09 0.88 0.001 To develop close relationships 3.31 1.10 3.77 0.98 0.001 To meet new and different people 3.64 0.99 4.00 0.90 0.001 To reveal my thoughts, feelings, or physical skills to others 3.16 1.16 3.15 1.05 0.90 To be socially competent and skillful 3.56 1.03 3.64 0.94 0.33 To gain a feeling of belonging 3.02 1.11 3.27 1.08 0.004 To gain others respect 3.19 1.17 3.13 1.10 0.52 To challenge my abilities 3.99 0.86 3.88 0.87 0.11 To be good in doing them 4.01 0.87 3.83 0.87 0.01 To improve my skill and ability in doing them 4.15 0.81 4.04 0.81 0.07 To be active 4.31 0.76 4.36 0.79 0.48 To develop physical skills and abilities 4.12 0.85 4.06 0.84 0.43 To keep in shape physically 4.26 0.82 4.30 0.88 0.58 To use my physical abilities 4.23 0.80 4.12 0.92 0.15 To develop physical fi tness 4.13 0.94 4.22 0.91 0.19 To slow down 2.52 1.09 2.78 1.91 0.04 Because I sometimes like to be alone 2.65 1.19 2.97 1.16 0.001 To relax physically 3.08 1.14 3.39 1.06 0.001 To relax mentally 3.42 1.12 3.64 1.01 0.01 To avoid the hustle and bustle of daily activities 3.49 1.09 3.56 0.99 0.35 To rest 2.85 1.15 3.10 1.13 0.01 To relieve stress and tension 3.87 0.96 4.03 0.86 0.02 To unstructured my time 3.08 1.15 3.15 1.14 0.46 Note. 1=Never True, 2=Seldom True, 3=Somewhat True, 4=Often True, 5=Always True Male n=297 Female n=334

72 RECREATIONAL SPORTS JOURNAL VOL 28 NO 1 As seen in Table 3, univariate F-tests revealed significant differences on 14 of the 32 items. Students who were not regular participants in recreational sports were significantly more likely to be motivated to explore new ideas (p =0.03), to expand my knowledge (p =0.03), and to discover new things (p=0.01). These items were subsumed in the intellectual factor, which upon further examination of factor means was significantly higher for subjects who did not participate regularly in campus recreational sports (p=0.03). The stimulus avoidance factor mean was also significantly higher for subjects that were not regular participants (p=0.01). Students who indicated that they were not regular participants in campus recreational sports were significantly more likely to be motivated to participate in leisure activities because sometimes I like to be alone (p=0.01), to avoid the hustle and bustle of daily activities (p=0.04), and to rest (p=0.01). Subjects who were regular participants in campus recreational sports were more likely to be motivated by competency/mastery factors such as competition and challenge. As seen in Table 3, the means of all competency/mastery variables were significantly higher for regular participants in recreational sports. The competency/mastery factor mean was also significantly higher for regular participants than those who did not regularly participate in campus recreational sports (p<0.001). Examination of the social factor indicated no significant difference between regular participants and nonparticipants. In addition, none of the variables subsumed in the social factor were significantly different. Further examination of the factors through PCA indicated that the amount of variance explained by the factors and the factor structure varied by regular participation (Table 1). The factor that explained the greatest percent of variance of leisure motivation for those who did not participate regularly was the intellectual factor (17.11%). The factor that explained the most amount of variance of motivation for leisure participation in regular participants was the competency/mastery factor (18.52%).

BEGGS, STITT AND ELKINS 73 Table 3: Motivation Variables for Participation in Leisure Activities by Participation Nonparticipant Participant Variable M SD M SD p To learn about things around me 2.92 1.02 3.07 0.85 0.04 To learn about things around me 3.06 0.93 2.92 0.93 0.11 To satisfy my curiosity 3.24 0.98 3.10 0.93 0.14 To explore new ideas 3.47 0.98 3.30 0.92 0.03 To learn about myself 3.27 1.04 3.22 1.02 0.41 To expand my knowledge 3.52 0.97 3.32 1.01 0.03 To discover new things 3.68 0.88 3.44 0.96 0.01 To be creative 3.49 0.96 3.35 1.03 0.07 To use my imagination 3.35 1.02 3.17 1.06 0.10 To build friendships with others 3.83 0.98 3.81 0.99 0.68 To interact with others 3.97 0.93 3.95 0.95 0.56 To develop close relationships 3.61 1.01 3.48 1.13 0.29 To meet new and different people 3.85 0.93 3.81 1.00 0.14 To reveal my thoughts, feelings, or physical skills to others 3.15 1.11 3.17 1.08 0.72 To be socially competent and skillful 3.56 0.99 3.66 0.97 0.39 To gain a feeling of belonging 3.17 1.09 3.13 1.11 0.68 To gain others respect 3.13 1.12 3.18 1.15 0.64 To challenge my abilities 3.82 0.88 4.08 0.83 0.001 To be good in doing them 3.81 0.87 4.06 0.86 0.001 To improve my skill and ability in doing them 3.99 0.77 4.23 0.84 0.001 To be active 4.23 0.82 4.48 0.69 0.001 To develop physical skills and abilities 4.01 0.83 4.19 0.85 0.03 To keep in shape physically 4.14 0.90 4.48 0.74 0.001 To use my physical abilities 4.06 0.91 4.33 0.78 0.001 To develop physical fi tness 4.06 0.96 4.35 0.83 0.001 To slow down 2.76 1.86 2.49 1.11 0.08 Because I sometimes like to be alone 2.90 1.14 2.68 1.23 0.01 To relax physically 3.32 1.06 3.13 1.17 0.07 To relax mentally 3.61 1.01 3.43 1.15 0.10 To avoid the hustle and bustle of daily activities 3.61 0.99 3.41 1.10 0.04 To rest 3.10 1.11 2.82 1.18 0.01 To relieve stress and tension 3.98 0.88 3.94 0.96 0.86 To unstructured my time 3.18 1.12 3.02 1.18 0.15 Note. 1=Never True, 2=Seldom True, 3=Somewhat True, 4=Often True, 5=Always True Nonparticipant n=365 Participant n=266

74 RECREATIONAL SPORTS JOURNAL VOL 28 NO 1 The factor that explained the least amount of variance for nonparticipants was the stimulus avoidance factor (12.38%) and the factor that explained the least amount of variance for regular participants was the social factor (10.56%). Discussion The results of this study support previous research by Kanters and Forrester (1997) that variables related to the competence/mastery factor are the most important in leisure participation. Overall, college students are motivated to participate in leisure activities to achieve, master, challenge, and compete. Kanters and Forrester also found that the social factor was significantly more important than other motivational factors. Contrary to those findings, the social factor was of the least importance in this study, indicating that interpersonal relationships are of lesser importance in leisure motivation than the other factors. With regard to gender, this study supports previous research by Iso- Ahola and Allen (1982), Gill (1988), and Gill, Gross, and Huddleston (1983) that suggests that males and females differ in their motivation for leisure participation. Males indicated that the most important motivational factor was the competency/mastery factor. By examining the results of the PCA, it was apparent that the most important motivational factor in leisure participation for females was the intellectual dimension. However, females still report that the competency/mastery was of considerable importance. This indicates that variables related to the competency/mastery such as the desire to achieve, master, challenge, and compete are important to males and females, but females are also strongly motivated to participate by intellectual variables such as mental stimulation, cognitive learning, and the opportunity to use one s imagination. The implications of this finding are important in considering the types of recreational services provided on campus and how recreational services are offered. By offering services that contain activities that are

BEGGS, STITT AND ELKINS 75 mentally stimulating or by marketing current services with a focus on intellectual benefits, more females may be likely to participate. The most important component of this study was the examination of students who were not regular users of campus recreational sports. Nearly 58 percent of the subjects indicated that they did not regularly participate in activities offered through campus recreational sports. The high number of students who did not participate regularly in recreational sports could be attributed to differences in motivational factors in overall leisure participation. The findings of this study suggest that nonregular participants are significantly more likely to seek leisure that fulfills their motivational desires for intellect and stimulus avoidance. The student who does not regularly participate in campus recreational sports is seeking experiences that provide escape and restoration and is more likely to seek experiences that allow for learning and exploration. Although significant differences exist between regular participants of recreational sports and nonregular participants, it should be noted that both groups are motivated by competition and challenge. The implications of these findings suggest that professionals should consider differing motivations in creating services and marketing. In addition to offering activities that provide physical challenges, programmers should consider creating leisure activities that provide intellectual benefits or experiences that allow for escape and restoration. In addition, current services that offer these elements could be marketed with an emphasis on the intellectual and stimulus avoidance benefits. Perhaps this approach would attract the many students who do not regularly participate in campus recreational sports. Conclusion Little research exists examining students who do not participate regularly in campus recreational sports. This demographic section of the student population is of great importance as professionals seek to increase leisure participation patterns on campus. There are many ways

76 RECREATIONAL SPORTS JOURNAL VOL 28 NO 1 to understand leisure participation, but an understanding of leisure motivation may be the best way to determine why people choose to participate or not participate in campus recreational sports. The findings of this study suggest that the desire for challenge and competition are important motivational factors to all college students. However, female college students seek additional intellectual rewards through leisure participation. Also, students who do not participate regularly in campus recreational sports seek additional benefits from their leisure such as escape and restoration, as well as the opportunity to use their imagination and learn. The results from this study have implications for campus recreational sports providers in the areas of services offered and marketing of services. Further research examining nonusers of campus recreational sports will help to further understand the leisure experience of college students and will enable professionals in campus recreation to better address the recreational needs of college students.

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