The Stigma of Obesity in Training Procedures Jenessa Shapiro RUSP proposal draft November 17, 2001
Abstract This study assesses the stigma of obesity within the trainer-trainee relationship and the impact of these expectancies in terms of a self-fulfilling prophecy. Past research has shown an unfavorable halo effect imposed by instructors upon students results in inadequate future performance by their pupils (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968). This suggests the existing stereotypes on obese employees, including unintelligence and laziness (Allon, 1982), can have a similar impact on training and future job competency. This experiment will use a web-based training interaction between two participants roleplaying trainer and trainee to examine the influence of trainee obesity on training outcomes. It is hypothesized that the obese trainees will perform worse than the normalweight trainees, receive shorter training sessions, and have a lower satisfaction with the training. These findings will extend our knowledge of factors related to training effectiveness, challenge many of the currently held stereotypes of obese employees, as well as introduce technology as a means to eliminate visible stigma.
Past research on the effectiveness of employee training procedures has identified a number of trainee characteristics such as self-efficacy and expectations whose? that can have an impact on how much a trainee learns in training and transfers back to the job (Quinones, 1997). However, there are a number of other trainee characteristics that can have an indirect, yet powerful, effect on training outcomes. This study examines the trainee characteristic of obesity and its possible influence on trainer expectations and subsequent trainee learning, satisfaction and transfer. Theories and findings from research on training and learning as well as those examining the stigma of obesity are used to develop a number of hypotheses linking trainee obesity, trainer expectations and training outcomes. Efficacy of training procedures Training procedures are provided by organizations in order to optimize employee performance (sounds like a euphemism for maximize employee productivity ). The largest percentage of time spent during training is dedicated to the job- specific technical skills. The majority of current training systems utilize face-to-face interactions in a classroom-based, instructor-led environment (Goldstein & Ford, 2002). The training environment impacts the resulting success or failure of trainees as well as the trainees cognitions (Baldwin & Magjuka, 1997). The trainees who believe they are capable of a successful performance are more likely to attempt actions leading to success. A trainee s personal evaluation of their number mismatch between a trainee and their, so go plural with trainees, or use his or her, which I personally dislike capacity to adequately apply the information gained from training is described as their self-efficacy. According to Quinones (1997), the relationship between self-efficacy and training effectiveness is visible in all aspects of the training process, such that the level of self-efficacy is not solely based on the trainee s task performance, but is also a result of external expectations, including those imposed by the organization on the trainee s likelihood of success. The influence of interpersonal
interactions in the work environment on trainees impacts the effectiveness of the training and its ability to motivate the trainees (Mathieu and Martineau, 1997). Teacher expectancy in education Past research on education supports the theory of expectancy from the perspective of a teacher in the classroom. Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) identify (use past tense? Consistency is more important, that the writing not alternate tense, but the past tense seems more appropriate here the tendency of teachers to exhibit a halo effect, or to attribute positive qualities to students who are considered physically attractive (in terms of race or apparent socio-economic status). When a teacher attributes intelligence to a child, the behavior of the child is judged as being of higher quality than the same behavior produced by a child who has not been classified as intelligent. According to Rist (2000), stigmatized students receive a different, unequal unequal and different mean the same thing, so how about using a word to indicate the direction of the difference, like poorer, teaching quality than non-stigmatized students, transforming the teacher expectancy into self-fulfilling prophecies. Teachers appear to have more interest in students attributed with positive qualities, spend more time instructing them, and present them as role models to the remainder of the students. This results in positively perceived students receiving more knowledge and better skill training than negatively perceived students. The stigma of obesity Larkin and Pines (1979) identify okay, present tense consistent usage the assignment of specific traits to individuals with salient stigmatized characteristics, including gender and race. Obese individuals experience the same labeling process and are believed to possess different personality traits and behaviors than normal-weight individuals. Unfavorable halo effects are revealed in literature concerning obesity: high intelligence and competence are attributed to physical attractiveness (Calvert, 1988) and the reverse is true for
the physically unattractive, who are viewed as social deviants. Obese individuals are associated with negative qualities such as laziness, weakness and immorality (Allon, 1982). In terms of employment, previous research has identified here you use past tense the transfer of these negative stereotypes into the employer s perception of obese employee efficacy. In the workplace, obese employees are regarded as less desirable employees and are classified as having lower competency, productivity, and industriousness as well as being unorganized, indecisive, inactive, and less successful (Larkin & Pines, 1979). (Use comma before last in a series) These stereotypes affect the interaction between normal weight individuals and the obese. For example, individuals are likely to express discomfort and the desire to increase the amount of personal space when associating with a visibly stigmatized individual (Worthington, 1974). The current literature identifies the social impact of obesity but fails to apply this stigmatization to an aspect of the work environment that deeply influences employee efficacy: training. Expectancy of trainers in the training process has received little research attention in the past. Eden and Shani (1982) have extended Rosenthal s Pygmalion findings into the adult training context, revealing trainees of whom more was expected, who learned more from instructors, and who reported more favorable attitudes concerning the course. It is likely that in addition to perceived performance scores and ability, negative personality traits also influence trainer expectancy. Stigmas identifying obese trainees as incompetent and less industrious than non-obese trainees would result in poorer (lower presumes a scale, and we don t know the polarity of that scale) training outcomes including knowledge and skill acquisition.
Hypotheses Based on previous findings on the negative stereotypes associated with obese individuals (laziness, etc.) and the role of trainer expectations in the learning process, the following hypotheses can be made: Hypothesis 1: There will be a main effect for the trainee weight such that trainees seen as (are you distinguishing perceived obesity from objective obesity?) obese will perform worse than non-obese trainees before or after training (or both)?. Hypothesis 2: There will be a main effect for the trainee weight such that trainees seen as obese will receive a shorter training session than non-obese trainees. Hypothesis 3: There will be a main effect for the trainee weight such that trainees seen as obese will have lower satisfaction with the training received than non-obese trainees. Is there any chance that the obesity stigma will behave differently in any from from other types of stigma? Or could you have used any type of stigma to answer your question about training? Method Participants The participants will be 40 student volunteers from the Rice University undergraduate student body. There will be minimal risks and discomforts in participation. Apparatus One participant will play the role of the trainer and the other will be the trainee. Two computers will be used with web-based video and sound capacity. The trainer s computer will display a still image of either an obese or normal person depending on the weight condition. The trainee s computer will display a live image of the trainer. The trainer s task is to teach the trainee how to perform a given problem using the computer
interface. Following the interaction, a questionnaire will be distributed to the participants asking them to judge the nature of their web-based interaction. The questions will first examine the use of a non-traditional form of training and then ask specific questions pertaining to the interaction. The trainer will rate the trainee on competency and future success in the company and on the job. The trainee will rate aspects of the trainer s personality including patience, hostility, and friendliness as well as the enjoyment the trainee obtained from the interaction. In addition, trainee s ability to perform the trained task will be examined. Procedure Participants will enter the experiment room separately, unable to see other participants. They will be randomly assigned to either the trainer condition or the trainee condition. The participants will be taken to separate locations where they will be read a script informing them that the nature of the study is to assess the efficacy of web learning, a growing practice adopted by many business organizations seeking to reach a large number of people all over the world. The trainer will be placed at a computer and randomly assigned to one of two conditions (obese, average weight). The trainer will be told that due to bandwidth constraints, he or she will be interacting with the trainee using only voice. The trainer will be provided with a pre-tested still image of either an obese or normal-weight individual that the trainer will be led to believe is the trainee. The trainer will have the ability to communicate verbally with the real trainee. I would assume that obesity cannot be detected from a person s voice, but perhaps someone has tested this explicity. The trainer will be read a script that explains that he or she must teach the trainee to solve a problem. The trainer will then be given the problem. The trainee will also sit in front of a computer and will be read a script that informs the trainee that he or she will be able to see and hear the trainer, as well as interact verbally
with him or her. The experimenter will explain that the participant is to use the instructions given by the trainer to solve a problem. The amount of time the interaction lasts between the participants will be recorded. After completion of the interaction, the two participants will be escorted to different rooms to complete paper and pencil questionnaires. For evaluation, performance on the problem-solving task will be recorded. Analysis The hypotheses will be tested using T-Tests to examine differences between the two experimental conditions on training outcomes. Specifically, differences in the amount of learning, rated trainee satisfaction with the training, and trainer ratings of trainee performance will be examined. Implications and Impact The results of this study will extend our knowledge of the factors related to training effectiveness. This experiment will identify the origins of stigmatization in the work environment and in training sessions. The present stereotypes held by individuals about the work ethic of obese employees may be a product of a self-fulfilling prophecy with roots in inadequate training. Poor training procedures for obese trainees would cause these employees to perform at a lower quality than normal-weight employees. This would challenge many of the current stigmas that attribute negative performance to obesity. This realization would be vital to organizations utilizing training programs. The use of technology in this experiment would also provide a feasible alternative where visible stigma can be eliminated.
References Allon, N. (1982). The stigma of overweight in everyday life. In B. B. Wolman & S. DeBerry (Eds.), Psychological Aspects of Obesity: A Handbook (pp.130-174). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Baldwin, T. & Magjuka, R. J. (1997). Organizational context and training effectiveness. In J. K. Ford (Ed.), Improving Training Effectiveness in Work Organizations (pp. 99-127). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Calvert, J. D. (1988). Physical attractiveness: A review and reevaluation of its role in social skill research. Behavioral Assessment, 10, 29-42. Eden, D. & Shani, A. B. (1982). Pygmalion goes to boot camp: Expectancy, leadership, and trainee performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67 (2), 194-199. Goldstein, I. L. & Ford, J. K. (2002). Training in organizations. (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group. Larkin, J. C. & Pines, H. A. (1979). No fat persons need apply. Sociology of Work and Occupations, 6 (3), 312-327. Mathieu, J. E. & Martineau, J. W. (1997). Individual and situational influences in training motivation. In J. K. Ford (Ed.), Improving training effectiveness in work organizations (pp. 99-127). Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Quinones, M. A. (1997). Contextual influences on training effectiveness. In M. A. Quinones & A. Ehrenstein (Eds.), Training for a Rapidly Changing Workplace (pp. 177-199). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Rist, R. C. (2000, Fall). Student social class and teacher expectations: The self-fulfilling prophecy in ghetto education [83 paragraphs]. Harvard Educational Review, [On-line serial], 70 (3). Available FTP: http://www.edreview.org/harvard00/2000/fa00/f00rist2.htm Rosenthal, R. & Jacobson, L. (1992). Pygmalion in the Classroom. (Rev. ed.). New York:
Irvington Publishers. Worthington, M. E. (1974). Personal space as a function of the stigma effect. Environment and Behavior, 6 (3), 289-294.
Budget $300 Web Cameras $600 Travel to a conference $300 Miscellaneous supplies (including photocopying and software) $1200
Timetable End of October/November = work out methodology, run pilot test End of November/December/January/February = run actual subjects End of February/March = analyze date March/April = report creation and finalization