EDITION Cognitive Psychology Robert J. Sternberg Yak University THOIVISOISI * WADSWORTH Australia Canada Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdom United States
C H A P T E R 1 Introduction to Cognitive Psychology 1 Exploring Cognitive Psychology 2 Cognitive Psychology Defined 2 Philosophical Antecedents of Psychology: Rationalism Versus Empiricism Psychological Antecedents of Cognitive Psychology 6 Early Dialectics in the Psychology of Cognition 6 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 8 From Associationistn to Behaviorism 9 Gestalt Psychobgy 11 Emergence of Cognitive Psychology 11 Early Role of Psychobiology 11 Add a Dash of Technology: Engineering and Computation 12 Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology 13 Goals of Research 13 Distinctive Research Methods 14 In the Lab of Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr. 15 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 20 Key Issues and Fields Within Cognitive Psychology 21 Underlying Issues in the Study of Cognitive Psychology 22 Key Themes in Cognitive Psychology 23 Chapter Previews 26 Summary 27 Questions Key Terms 29 Annotated Suggested Readings 29 28 C H A P T E R JL Cognitive Neuroscience 30 Exploring Cognitive Psychology 31 From Neuron to Brain: Organization of the Nervous System Neuronal Structure and Function 32 Levels of Organization in the Nervous System 34 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 36 31
Contents Viewing the Structures and Functions of the Brain 38 Postmortem Studies 38 Animal Studies 38 Electrical Recordings 39 Static Imaging Techniques 40 Metabolic Imaging 40 Cognition in the Brain: Cerebral Cortex and Other Structures 43 In the Lab of John Gabrieli 44 Gross Anatomy of the Brain: Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain 45 Cerebral Cortex and Localization of Function 51 Summary 62 Questions 63 Key Terms 64 Annotated Suggested Readings 64 COGLAB: Brain Asymmetry O Attention and Consciousness 65 Exploring Cognitive Psychology 66 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 66 The Nature of Attention and Consciousness 66 Preconscious Processing 68 In the Lab of John F. Kihlstrom 70 Controlled Versus Automatic Processes 71 Habituation 77 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 79 Attention 79 Signal Detection 79 The Nature of Signal Detection 81 Vigilance 82 Search 83 Selective and Divided Attention 91 Basic Paradigms for Studying Selective Attention 91 Filter and Bottleneck Theories of Selective Attention 92 Attentional-Resource Theories of Selective Attention 96 Additional Considerations in Selective Attention 98 Divided Attention 99 Cognitive Neuroscientific Approaches to Attention and Consciousness 101 Attentional Systems 101 Using Event-Related Potentials to Measure Attention 102 A Psychopharmacological Approach 103 Links Among Perception, Attention, and Consciousness 103 Summary 104
X Contents Questions 105 Key Terms 106 Annotated Suggested Readings 107 COGLAB: Attentional Blink COGLAB: Stroop Effect COGLAB: Simon Effect COGLAB: Spatial Cueing C H A P T E R Perception 108 Exploring Cognitive Psychology 109 From Sensation to Representation 113 Some Basic Concepts 113 Perceptual Constancies 114 Depth Perception 118 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 122 Gesta.lt Approaches to Form Perception 122 In the Lab of Stephen Palmer 126 Theoretical Approaches to Perception 126 Bottom-Up Approaches: Direct Perception 127 Top-Doum Approaches: Constructive Perception 137 Synthesizing the Two Approaches 140 A Computational Theory of Perception 140 Deficits in Perception 142 Summary 145 Questions 146 Key Terms 146 Annotated Suggested Readings 147 COGLAB: Mapping the Blind Spot COGLAB: Receptive Fields COGLAB: Apparent Motion COGLAB: Metacontrast Masking COGLAB: Muller-Lyer Illusion COGLAB: Signal Detection COGLAB: Visual Search COGLAB: Lexical Decision J Memory: Models and Research Methods 148 Exploring Cognitive Psychology 149 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 149
Tasks Used for Measuring Memory 149 Recall Versus Recognition Tasks 150 Implicit Versus Explicit Memory Tasks 151 Traditional Model of Memory 152 Sensory Store 153 Short-Term Store 157 Long-Term Store 157 Alternative Perspectives, Alternative Metaphors 158 Levels of Processing 158 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 160 Working Memory J 61 Multiple-Memory-Systems Mode! J 63 In the Lab of M. K. Johnson 164 A Connectionist Perspective 165 Memory in the Real World 166 Exceptional Memory and Neuropsychology 168 Outstanding Memory: Mnemonists 168 Deficient Memory: Amnesia 169 Role of the Hippocampus and Other Structures 172 Summary 174 Questions 175 Key Terms 176 Annotated Suggested Readings 176 COGLAB: Memory Span COGLAB: Partial Report COGLAB: Absolute Identification COGLAB: Operation Span COGLAB: Implicit Learning O Memory Processes 178 Exploring Cognitive Psychology 179 Encoding and Transfer of Information 180 Forms of Encoding 180 Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory J 82 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 185 Retrieval 189 Retrieval From Short-Term Memory 189 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 189 Retrieval From Long-Term Memory 192 Processes of Forgetting and Memory Distortion 192 Interference Versus Decay Theory 193 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 196
xii Contents The Constructive Nature of Memory 198 Autobiographical Memory 198 Memory Distortions 199 In the Lab of Elizabeth Loftus 202 Context Effects on Encoding and Retrieval 203 Summary 207 Questions 208 Key Terms 208 Annotated Suggested Readings 209 COGLAB: Brown-Peterson COGLAB: False Memory COGLAB: Serial Position COGLAB: Sternberg Search COGLAB: Von Restorff Effect COGLAB: Encoding Specificity / Knowledge Representation: Images and Propositions 2 Exploring Cognitive Psychology 211 Mental Representation of Knowledge 211 External Representations: Pictures Versus Words 213 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 213 Mental Imagery 215 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 216 Dual-Code Theory: Analogical Images Versus Symbols 216 In the Lab of S. M. Kosslyn 217 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 218 Propositional Theory 219 Mental Manipulations of Images 225 Mental Rotations 225 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 226 Image Scaling 230 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 230 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 231 Image Scanning 232 Synthesizing Images and Propositions 234 Epiphenomena and Demand Characteristics 234 Johnson-Laird's Mental Modek 236 Neuropsychological Evidence for Multiple Codes 238 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 241 Spatial Cognition and Cognitive Maps 241 Rats, Bees, and Humans 241 Mental Shortcuts 243 Text Maps 247
Con Summary 248 Questions 250 Key Terms 250 Annotated Suggested Readings 251 COGLAB: Mental Rotation O Knowledge Representation and Organization 252 Exploring Cognitive Psychology 253 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 253 Organization of Declarative Knowledge 254 Concepts and Categories 255 Semantic Network Models 259 Schematic Representations 263 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 265 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 266 Representations of Procedural Knowledge 266 Integrative Models for Representing Declarative and Nondeclarative Knowledge 268 Combining Representations: ACT-R 268 Models Based on the Human Brain 271 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 273 Parallel Processing: The Connectionist Model 275 In the Lab of James L. McClelland 279 How Domain General or Domain Specific Is Cognition? 281 Summary 281 Questions 282 Key Terms 283 Annotated Suggested Readings 283 COGLAB: Prototypes V Language: Nature and Acquisition 284 Exploring Cognitive Psychology 285 Properties of Language 286 General Description 286 Fundamental Aspects of Language 289 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 292 Processes of Language Comprehension 293 Speech Perception 293
xiv Contents Semantics and Syntax 296 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 298 In the Lab of Steven Pinker 299 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 300 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 305 Language Acquisition 305 Stages of Language Acquisition 306 Nature and Nurture 308 Beyond the First Years 313 Summary 314 Questions 315 Key Terms 316 Annotated Suggested Readings 316 COGLAB: Categorical Perception Identification COGLAB: Categorical Perception Discrimination COGLAB: Suffix Effect Language in Context 317 Exploring Cognitive Psychology 318 Reading: Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processes 318 Perceptual Issues in Reading 319 Lexical Processes in Reading 319 Language and Thought 323 Differences Between Languages 323 Bilingualism and Dialects 329 Slips of the Tongue 334 Metaphorical Language 336 Language in a Social Context 337 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 338 Speech Acts 338 Conversational Postulates 341 In the Lab of Richard Gerrig 343 Gender and Language 344 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 345 Discourse and Reading Comprehension 345 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 346 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 346 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 347 Neuropsychology of Language 351 Lesion Studies and Event-Related Potentials Research 351 Other Methods 354 Summary 355
Questions 356 Key Terms 357 Annotated Suggested Readings 357 COGLAB: Word Superiority I I Problem Solving and Creativity 358 Exploring Cognitive Psychology 359 The Problem-Solving Cycle 360 Types of Problems 364 Well-Structured Problems 364 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 364 Iii-Structured Problems and the Role of Insight 371 Obstacles and Aids to Problem Solving 379 Menta! Sets, Entrenchment, and Fixation 379 Negative and Positive Transfer 381 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 381 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 382 In the Lab of Keith Holyoak 384 Incubation 385 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 386 Expertise: Knowledge and Problem Solving 387 Organization of Knowledge 387 Innate Talent and Acquired Skill 392 Creativity 393 It's How Much You Produce 394 It's What You Know 395 It's Who You Are 396 It's Where You Are 396 All of the Above 397 Types of Creative Contributions 398 Summary 399 Questions 401 Key Terms 401 Annotated Suggested Readings 401 COGLAB: Monty Hall \ Z- Decision Making and Reasoning 403 Exploring Cognitive Psychology 404 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 404
xvi Contents Judgment and Decision Making 405 Classical Decision Theory 405 Satisficing 406 Elimination by Aspects 407 Heuristics and Biases 409 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 410 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 414 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 414 In the Lab of Gerd Gigerenzer 418 Deductive Reasoning 419 Conditional Reasoning 419 Syllogistic Reasoning 425 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 425 Further Aids and Obstacles to Deductive Reasoning 431 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 432 Inductive Reasoning 432 Reaching Causal Inferences 434 Categorical Inferences 437 Reasoning by Analogy 437 An Alternative View of Reasoning 438 Summary 440 Questions 441 Key Terms 441 Annotated Suggested Readings 442 COGLAB: Risky Decisions I O Cognitive Development 443 Exploring Cognitive Psychology 444 Major Approaches to Cognitive Development 445 General Principles of Cognitive Development 446 Maturation of Thought Processes 446 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 455 Socioculturcd Influences on Thought Processes 459 Development of Information-Processing Skills 462 Metacognitive Skills and Memory Development 463 In the Lab of Susan Carey 466 Quantitative Skills 468 Visuospatial Skills 468 Inductive Reasoning 470 Neurophysiological Changes in Development 472 Increasing Neuronal Complexity 472 Maturation of Central Nervous System Structures 474
Cognitive Development in Adulthood 476 Patterns of Growth and Decline 476 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 479 Wisdom and Aging 479 Summary 480 Questions 481 Key Terms 481 Annotated Suggested Readings 482 14- Human and Artificial Intelligence 483 Exploring Cognitive Psychology 484 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 484 Measures and Structures of Intelligence 486 History of Intelligence Testing and Scoring 486 Intelligence Scales 488 Factor Analysis of Intelligence 491 Information Processing and Intelligence 494 Process Timing Theories 494 In the Lab of Ian Deary 495 Working Memory 498 The Componential Theory and Complex Problem Solving 499 Biological Bases of Intelligence 501 Alternative Approaches to Intelligence 503 Cultural Context and Intelligence 503 Gardner: Multiple Intelligences 506 Sternberg: The Triarchic Theory 508 Practical Applications of Cognitive Psychology 510 Artificial Intelligence: Computer Simulations 511 Can a Computer Program Be "Intelligent"? 511 Questions About the Intelligence of Intelligent Programs 517 Improving Intelligence: Effective, Ineffective, and Questionable Strategies 519 Investigating Cognitive Psychology 520 Summary 522 Questions 523 Key Terms 524 Annotated Suggested Readings 524 Glossary 525 References 541 Name Index 580 Subject Index 588 Credits 597