Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Gender inequality and social cohesion in a converging world Karen Barnes, Nejma Bouchama and Estelle Loiseau 21 January 2011
Rationale for this research Despite growth and structural changes of the past two decades, women continue to lose out in terms of wealth and well-being as compared to men across much of the world WHY? Discriminatory social institutions drive gender inequalities in hidden and unexplored ways, even in countries that have experienced fast growth or growing income levels SO WHAT? Structures and practices that discriminate against women have a negative impact on social cohesion and are an obstacle to sustainable and inclusive development 2
Discrimination against women leads to poor development outcomes In the 21 countries that have the highest level of discrimination against women as measured by SIGI, primary school completion is on average 15% lower, nearly twice as many children suffer from malnutrition and maternal mortality rates are twice as high Three key factors are over-looked and under-researched: Women s limited access to and control over resources Women s lack of decision-making power Widespread violence against women 3
Measuring discrimination against women Social Institutions Variables Family Code Physical Integrity Son Preference Civil Liberties Ownership Rights Early marriage Polygamy Parental authority Inheritance Female genital mutilation Violence against women Missing women Freedom of movement Freedom of dress Access to land Access to bank loans Access to property 4
SIGI: The Social Institutions and Gender Index Highest inequality: sub- Saharan Africa; Middle East and North Africa; South Asia Lowest inequality: Latin America; Europe and Central Asia Region with both high and low performers: East Asia and Pacific 5
Shifting wealth, shifting gender relations? Changing dynamics of inequality Structural changes in labour markets New trade patterns Technological advances Increased migration flows Faster growth and rising incomes (for some) but what does this mean for development, gender equality and social cohesion? 6
Average SIGI value Average SIGI score Average SIGI score according to country classification in the four-speed world 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.00 0.17 0.13 0.11 0.01 Affluent Converging Struggling Poor Four-speed world classification Source: Author s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009), OECD Gender and Institutions Database (2009) 7
Converging countries and discrimination against women Low-income Lower-middle income Upper-middle income Bangladesh (90) Chad (97) Ethiopia (89) Mali (99) Sierra Leone (100) Zambia (85) 13 other countries China (83) Egypt (82) India (96) Iran (95) Nigeria (86) Pakistan (94) Sudan (102) 24 other countries 22 countries 8
Two things to keep in mind Growth doesn t tell the whole story and averages hide more than what they tell us about society 9
Maternal mortality rate Maternal mortality ratios 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 Maternal mortality rate (MMR) Average MMR for converging countries BGD CHN EGY ETH IND IRN MLI NGA PAK SDN SLE TCD ZMB Source: Author s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009) 10
% deliveries attended by skilled staff Births attended by skilled staff % deliveries attended by skilled staff average % deliveries attended by skilled staff for convergers 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 BGD CHN IND MLI SDN Source: Author s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009) 11
Average health expenditure per capita Health expenditure per capita Health expenditure per capita Average health expenditure, upper-middle income convergers Average health expenditure, lower-middle income convergers Average health expenditure, low income convergers 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 BGD CHN EGY ETH IND IRN MLI NGA PAK SDN SLE TCD ZMB Source: Author s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009) 12
Physical integrity and maternal mortality In the ten countries where women s physical integrity is least protected (Mali, Somalia, Sudan, Egypt, Sierra Leone, Ethiopia, Liberia, Guinea-Bissau, Eritrea, Guinea), maternal mortality ratios are on average twice as high as elsewhere. Source: Author s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009), OECD Gender and Institutions Database (2009) 13
Education Significant increase in enrolment and completion rates in primary education But, for every 100 boys out of school: 270 girls are out of school in Yemen, 316 in Iraq and 416 in India and 257 in Benin (UNESCO, 2007)......And progress is not as significant at the secondary level. 14
F/M primary enrolment ratio Ratio of female/male enrolment in primary education 120 Ratio F/M primary enrolment average ratio F/M primary enrolment for convergers 100 80 60 40 20 0 BGD EGY ETH IND MLI NGA PAK SDN SLE TCD ZMB CHN Source: Author s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009) 15
Ratio F/M secondary enrolment Ratio of female/male enrolment in secondary education ratio F/M secondary enrolment average ratio F/M secondary enrolment for convergers 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 BGD CHN ETH IND IRN MLI NGA PAK SDN SLE TCD ZMB Source: Author s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009), 16
Literacy Female literacy in high-sigi countries Average female literacy in other convergers 100 80 60 40 20 0 BGD CHN ETH NGA PAK SDN SLE TCD ZMB Female literacy in high-sigi countries is strikingly below average female literacy in other converging countries. Source: Author s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009) 17
Early marriage and primary school completion rates In the countries where more than half of girls aged 15-19 years are married (DRC, Niger, Afghanistan, Congo and Mali), on average fewer than half of primary school aged children are in school Source: Author s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009), OECD Gender and Institutions Database (2009) 18
19 Female labour force participation
Changing employment patterns Feminisation of bad jobs : while there has been an increase in the quantity of job opportunities, women lose out on the quality of jobs available Women are most often segregated in sectors with low pay, long working hours and informal working arrangements, without access to benefits or social protection Women carry out a disproportionate amount of unpaid care and domestic work Women are over-represented in agriculture and services A significant proportion of contributing family workers are women for some converging countries 20
21 Ratio of female share/male share in employment status by region
Contributing family workers by gender for selected converging countries Female contributing family workers Male contributing family workers 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% BGD COL BRA EGY ETH IRN ZAF VNM 22
Share in total employment Employment by sector, 2008 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% F M F M F M F M F M F M F M Services Industry Agriculture East Asia Southeast Asia and the Pacific South Asia LAC Selected regions Middle East North Africa Subsaharan Africa Source: ILO 2009 23
Employees, female, agriculture Female agricultural employment 80 70 60 1 Employees, female, agriculture (% of female employment) 50 40 30 20 10 0.5 Average employees, female, agriculture (% of female employment) for other convergers Access to land 0 BGD EGY ETH PAK 0 Source: Author s calculations based on World Bank World Development Indicators (2009), OECD Gender and Institutions Database (2009) 24
Percentage of female parliamentarians Percentage of female parliamentarians 2009 Average for other convergers 25 20 15 10 5 0 BGD CHN EGY ETH IND IRN MLI NGA PAK SDN SLE TCD ZMB 25
% women in parliament Change in % of women in parliament in low income converging countries 16.00 15.08 14.00 12.00 10.00 8.00 6.00 5.69 6.72 Other converging countries High SIGI converging countries 4.00 3.00 2.00 0.00 1990s 2000s 26
Son preference In many countries, particularly China and India, there is strong evidence of missing women as a result of son preference due to female infanticide, sex-selective abortions and neglect of the well-being of girl children. This phenomenon has direct consequences on social cohesion as it: Perpetuates discriminatory practices against women and girls if men are not able to find wives, early marriage, forced marriage, bride-knapping etc. The perception that investing in boys will yield a greater return than similar investments in girls who will eventually marry and leave the family is reflected in the allocation of household resources Could increase likelihood of conflict as the number of single, young men increases In China, recent research has found that the shifting demographic reality is already changing household saving behaviour, and may be a factor driving global imbalances 27
Linking women s access to resources and social cohesion Problem Impact on women and girls Policy options Implications for social cohesion Limited land and property rights Limited access to financial resources Limited inheritance rights Limits women s agricultural productivity and food security Lack of collateral prevents women from accessing bank loans or financial services Restricts women s entrepreneurship Widowed girls and women may be left homeless Increased vulnerability of young girls Land-titling projects and resettlement schemes Training and networks to support women s entrepreneurship Legislative reform to protect women and girls right to inherit More access to and control over resources : Women more active in the formal economy Improves women s socioeconomic status Increases their sense of belonging Increases social mobility 28
Linking women s decision-making power and social cohesion Problem Impact on women and girls Policy options Implications for social cohesion Limited decisionmaking power in the household Low representation in local government Low representation in national government Increased likelihood of losing out in intra-household allocation of resources Increased likelihood of high fertility rates and unsafe sex Limits women s community engagement Limits women s voice and participation May decrease likelihood of gender-sensitive service delivery and resource allocations Cash transfers directly to women and girls Awareness-raising campaigns targeting men Quotas and affirmative action Proportional representation Constitutional reform Increasing women s decision-making power: Promotes their sense of inclusion and participation in civic life Increases their bargaining power in the home Improves health and welfare of children 29
Linking security for women and social cohesion Problem Impact on women and girls Policy options Implications for social cohesion Physical and sexual violence FGM Physical and psychological health problems Compromises the education of girls when violence occurs in schools Lowers earnings and productivity when women are unable to work Restricts women s freedom of movement Short and long term risks to physical, sexual and psychological health Increased risk of mortality during pregnancy and childbirth and of HIV/Aids Publicity and media campaigns Strengthen data collection on VAW Adopt and enforce national laws against VAW Prohibit and criminalise marital rape Public awareness campaigns Community led initiatives to abandon FGM More security for women: Avoids the erosion of social capital due to stigma and isolation Enables women to participate in social, political and economic life Increases their sense of trust in society Prevents the perpetuation of a culture of violence 30
Key findings Hidden gender inequalities are being driven by these discriminatory institutions: negative consequences for human development and the economic and political participation of women Gender can be a useful lens to see the social costs and inequalities that are being exacerbated by shifting wealth Quality of jobs and access to decent work for women needs to be at forefront of policy responses to adapt to changing labour markets Next step: Country case studies to determine which factors (early marriage, violence, land rights, etc) are most relevant and what policies have been effective in transforming discrimination against women 31