Carbohydrate Carbo-hydrate -carbon, water Cn(H2O) n Monosaccharides Hexose hex = 6 [carbons], "-ose" means sugar Glucose monosaccaccharide usually assume a ring structure
Disaccharides Compound dehydration synthesis puts sugars together Hydrolysis (hydro-water, lysisbreakdown) is the opposite, e.g. in digestion Disaccharide - sucrose, lactose (milk) Figure shows maltose and sucrose, and shows dehydration synthesis.
Polysaccharides Polysaccharides starch (plant) glycogen (glyco-sugar, gen-give birth to) (animal) Energy storage: In liver for whole body In muscle for muscle use Cellulose - fiber
Lipids Lipids (fats) store more energy 1 tablespoon of sugar is 50, fat 100 "Calories" Glycerol & 3 fatty acids (16-24 C long) - triglyceride ester bonds note the dehydration synthesis The -COOH defines an organic acid such as a fatty acid otherwise the molecule is a hydrocarbon.
more C-C (single bond) vs. C=C (double) unsaturated (vs saturated with H's) with several, "polyunsaturated" Animal fats tend to be saturated bad for arteries leads to atherosclerosis; vs. vegetable fats better.
Other lipids Polar phospholipids Steroids-cholesterol & hormones Salts of cholesterol are in bile (from liver) act like a detergent to emulsify fats to aid in digestion.
Proteins "Peptide", polypeptide "protein" NH2-CR-COOH - amino ( -NH2 ) and acid ( -COOH ). -NH2 & -COOH linked dehydration synthesis There are about 20 amino acids R group varies essential
4 levels of structure 1. primary (the sequence) 2. secondary (alpha helix, beta pleated sheet) 3. tertiary structure (disulfide and other bonds) 4. quaternary structure (chains interact with each other)
More about proteins hemoglobin - 2 alpha subunits 2 beta subunits heme group. amino acids can be used for energy, nitrogenous waste must be eliminated as urea.
Energy kinetic and potential Recall potential - Volts BTU's, calories energy and heat are related energies of covalent bonds (kcal / mol) Free energy can be used for work = what is stored in bonds minus what is wasted as heat
Cellular respiration C6H12O6 -> 6CO2 +6H2O + energy free energy = 686 kcal/mol ATP to ADP, 38 for complete respiration 40.3% efficient, the rest is heat, usually considered as waste but useful in temperature regulation in warm blooded animals, homoiotherms, homeotherms.
Count calories (kcal) 2000/day for a sedentary adult woman Important that we do not lose calories (through urine or feces) except through urine in untreated diabetes. Marathon - 3000 Cal aerobic. 100 yd dash -anaerobic
We get our energy from (1) glucose, (2) glycogen in muscle for use in muscle in liver for glucose release to blood, (3) amino acids (with NH3 as waste), (4) fat (mostly fatty acids) chopped down 2 carbons at a time acetic acid, acetyl CoA in the Kreb's cycle
Glycolysis Glucose is split into 2 pyruvic acids Use 2 ATP's make 4, net 2 make 2 NADH's plus 2 H+'s the H+'s come from from "sugar"
Also without oxygen, make lactic acid. Anaerobic glycolysis deliver ATP quickly but wastefully need to regenerate NAD+ from NADH Lactic acid - muscle fatigue and oxygen debt liver eventually reconverts Anaerobic cellular "respiration for extreme exertion because cardiac output limits O2 to muscle.
Epinephrine stimulating liver to release glucose Sutherland 1971 Nobel Prize beta adrenergic part camp, a "second messenger" (part of a signal transduction "cascade. ) Sutherland is founder of "signal transduction. "Note that there is a separate alpha adrenergic effect too
Glycolysis and Krebs cycle Pyruvic acid, acetic acids, Acetyl CoA Kreb's cycle = citric acid cycle = TCA (tricarboxylic acid cycle) Takes place in mitochondrion A few ATP's are made plus NADH's and FADH2 are generated Notice that CO2 is generated here.
more 1953 Nobel, Krebs & Lipmann sugar-h2 + NAD+ ->(DEHYDROGENASE)-> "sugar" + NADH + H+ (in other words, H is split to H+ and e-) Electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation use oxygen cytochromes-iron-containing pigments (heme) NADH and FADH2 give electrons to cytochromes and oxygen
more Protons pumped then flow down gradient making ATP's Something like an ion pump in reverse how most ATP is made H+ (ph, proton) gradient runs through that molecule, like water running through turbines generating electricity, to generate ATP
Glucose transport Facilitated diffusion Insulin dependent transporter deployment Na+ dependent (Na+ is pumped)
Insulin receptor membrane spanning tyrosine kinase Dimerizes Kinase enzyme phosphorylates a protein Tyrosine phosphorylation on tyrosine residues Obviously, this would take place on the intracellular side of the membrane