The Detroit Dental Health Project On behalf of community organizations, investigators, and staff 1
Question Why do some African-American children (<6 years old) and their main caregivers have better oral health than others who live in the same community and share similar social, economic, and cultural characteristics? 2
Families Included in the DDHP African-American children under 6 years of age. Caregiver of child primary decision maker about: Feeding, taking care of mouth and teeth, visiting the doctor or dentist. Majority are maternal caregivers. Household income below 250% of the 2000 poverty level. 39 Census tracts within Detroit were identified - 35,000 households of which approximately 17% were expected to have eligible children. 3
Interactions with the DDHP families 5-year follow-up of a representative sample of 1,021 low-income African-American families in Detroit Social and behavioral determinants of health Wave I Multi-dimensional intervention Wave II Main outcome: Dental caries (ICDAS) Wave III Diet, nutrition & Blood lead (trace elements) level Access and use of dental care services 4
Detroit and Suburbs: 2005 Projected Household Income by Census Tract Push pins represent dentists in private practice. 5
Sampling Two-stage selection of African-American families in the poorest 39 Census Tracts in Detroit Stage 1 Stage 2 - Selected 118 blocks out of 1,526 blocks in 39 Census Tracts - Adjacent blocks were linked to the 118 blocks to create segments of a minimum size (100 housing units) - A total of 565 blocks formed the 118 segments - Listed 17,269 buildings of which 14,406 were housing units -> 12,655 housing units randomly selected - Screening visit by trained staff 10,695 were occupied (84.5% occupancy rate) 9,781 were successfully contacted and screened (91.5% contact rate) - Of the 9,781 contacted housing units, 1,386 (14.2%) had an eligible African- American child under 6 years of age - 1,021 families completed the first (Wave 1) interview/examination 6
Wave I (2002 03) Questionnaire/interview Psychosocial and Behavioral Determinants of Health Lead Exposure: blood & saliva (adults only) Nutrition: adults & children (Block FFQ ) Dental and Oral Health Assessment Caries: adults & children Periodontal health: adults 7
Social and Behavioral Factors Parenting stress Caregiver oral health beliefs and attitudes Self-efficacy Quality of life Depressive symptoms Everyday discrimination Religiosity Social support (family, neighborhood) Access to dental care and dental visits Rating of availability of dental services Dental insurance Trust in medical and dental providers Oral health behaviors and practices for child and caregiver 8
Early Carious Lesions Early lesions 9
Early Carious Lesions: Occluding Tooth Surfaces 10
Early Carious Lesions 11
Cavitated Lesions 12
Cavitated Lesions Early tooth decay Early tooth decay Cavitated tooth decay 13
Diet, Nutrition & Lead Exposure Questionnaire: caregiver and index child Nutrition: Block FFQ for adults and children 3-5 years New questionnaire was designed and tested for 0-2 year old children Food sufficiency Height and weight measurements Blood and saliva samples (adult only) For lead and other metal assay 14
Dental and Oral Health Assessment Main Outcome (caries) Caregiver and child Periodontal disease Pocket depth & gingival bleeding Oral Hygiene status 15
Tracking Families (1,021) Mobility is high Disconnected telephone numbers Families may temporarily live with neighbors, friends, or relatives 654 (64%) completed Wave III (2007). 16
Families moved an average of 2 times in the past 5 years 17
Wave II (2004 05) 791 families (77%) returned for interviews and examinations Questionnaire/interview Psychosocial and behavioral factors Lead Exposure child only Nutrition child only Dental and Oral Health Assessment Tailored Educational Intervention Motivational Interviewing with DVD 18
Wave III (March September 2007) 654 families (64%) returned for interviews and examinations Questionnaire/interview Psychosocial and behavioral factors Nutrition child only Dental and Oral Health Assessment Evaluation of Educational Intervention Motivational Interviewing with DVD 19
What have we learned from the DDHP? So far 20
Families 21
Characteristics Caregivers: Age: 14-70 years (avg = 29.3) Females (95.5%) Relationship: 86% mothers 4% fathers 6% grandmothers 4% other caregivers 53% unemployed at baseline (2002-03) EDUCATION REPORTED ANNUAL INCOME some high school high school diploma some college college degree Children: Age: 0-5 years (avg = 2.6) Females (52.2%) <$10,000 $10,000-$29,999 >$30,000 22
Dental Caries 23
Early Childhood Caries (ECC) and Severe ECC Status by Child's Age (Baseline 2002-03, weighted %) 100% 90% 80% 7 1 27 44 34 70% 7 56 61 60% 13 50% 40% 92 66 15 20 S-ECC ECC-Only No cavities 30% 20% 41 19 53 10% 24 10 0% 1 2 3 4 5 total Child's age 24
Percentage of Children with New Non-cavitated and Cavitated Lesions in Primary Teeth 100 90 80 Percentage of Children 70 60 50 40 30 44.4 53.6 55.7 65.1 39.9 47.0 W1-W2 W1-W3 20 10 0 Non-cavitated (ICDAS 1) Non-cavitated (ICDAS 2) Cavitated (ICDAS 3-6) 25
Mean Number of New Non-cavitated and Cavitated Lesions in Children s Primary Teeth 3 2.9 2.5 2.5 2 2.0 2.1 1.5 W1-W2 W1-W3 1 1.0 1.2 0.5 0 Non-cavitated (ICDAS 1) Non-cavitated (ICDAS 2) Cavitated (ICDAS 3-6) 26
Percentage of Children with New Non-cavitated and Cavitated Lesions in Permanent Teeth 100 90 80 Percentage of Children 70 60 50 40 30 42.5 37.2 W1-W2 W1-W3 20 10 13.2 11.1 2.9 13.6 0 Non-cavitated (ICDAS 1) Non-cavitated (ICDAS 2) Cavitated (ICDAS 3-6) 27
Mean Number of New Non-cavitated and Cavitated Lesions in Children s Permanent Teeth 3 2.5 Number of Lesions 2 1.5 1 1.3 1.6 W1-W2 W1-W3 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.3 0 Non-cavitated (ICDAS 1) Non-cavitated (ICDAS 2) Cavitated (ICDAS 3-6) 28
Periodontal Disease 29
Gingivitis: Bleeding and Inflammation 30
Early Periodontitis (Gum Disease) 31
Gum Diseases in Adults at Baseline (2002-03) 100 90 80 Percentage of Adults 70 60 50 40 30 51.8 20 10 0 10.8 8.6 None Bleeding Bleeding + Mild Gum Disease 16.3 Bleeding + Severe Gum Dise ase 5.1 Moderate Gum Disease 1.0 Severe Gum Dis eas e 32
Conclusion: Dental Diseases While the children and caregivers have advanced dental caries; early or mild forms of dental caries and periodontal disease are more common. Hence, preventive or minimal interventions are indicated. 33
Food Intake and Tooth Decay 34
Diet and Dental Caries: Caregivers More severe dental caries is related to more frequent consumption of soft drinks (p=.02) Mean DMFS scores were significantly related to the proportion of energy from sugars D t MFS Lowest tertile ( 9.6% of energy from sugar) 44.4 Middle (9.6-17.8% of energy from sugar) 49.7 Highest (17.8% of energy from sugar) 52.4 p=.001 Burt BA, Kolker JL, Sandretto AM, Yuan Y, Sohn W, Ismail AI. Dietary Patters Related to Caries in a Low-Income Adult Population. Caries Research 2004; 40: 473-80. 35
Diet and Dental Caries: Children Higher levels of decay were associated with higher consumption of soda and powdered/sugared sports drinks (e.g. Gatorade) 54% of all sugar consumed came from sugared beverages (soda, sports drinks) Kolker JL, Burt B, Sandretto A, Yuan Y, Sohn W, Lang S, Ismail AI. Dental caries and dietary patterns in low-income African-American children. Pediatr Dent 2007; 29: 457-64. Children who consumed more soft drinks as they aged, were more likely to have after 2 years: greater number of new lesions (IRR=1.75) new filled surfaces (IRR=2.67) Children who were consistently high consumers of soft drinks were also more likely to have a greater number of new filled surfaces (IRR=2.68) after 2 years Lim S, Sohn, Burt BA, Sandretto AM, Kolker JL, Marshall TA, Ismail AI. Cariogenicity of soft drinks, milk, and fruit juice in low income African-American children: A longitudinal study. J Am Dent Assoc 2008; 139: 959-67. 36
Dental Caries and Consumption of Soft Drinks, Milk and 100% Fruit Juice 9 8 7 Number of Lesions 6 5 4 3 5.6 5.2 6.5 8.1 New decayed, missing, filled 2 1 0 Consistently High Milk and Juice Decreased Soft Drinks Increased Soft Drinks Consitently High Soft Drinks 37
Obesity in Detroit 38
Diet and Obesity: Caregivers Most frequently consumed foods: Tap water Sugared soda Potato chips 7.4% eat 2 or more servings of vegetables per day 7.8% eat 2 or more servings of fruits per day Average daily intake = 2,090 kcals 15% of energy came from sugars Burt B, Kolker J, Sandretto A, Yuan Y, Sohn W, Ismail AI. Dietary patterns related to caries in a low-income adult population. Caries Res 2006; 40: 473-80. 39
Diet and Obesity: Children Most frequently consumed foods: Cold cereal Potato chips Sliced cheese Bread Bologna Ketchup No vegetables were in the top 18 most frequently consumed foods (although several fruits appeared) 54% of sugar intake came from sweetened beverages Kolker JL, Burt B, Sandretto A, Yuan Y, Sohn W, Lang S, Ismail AI. Dental caries and dietary patterns in low-income African-American children. Pediatr Dent 2007; 29: 457-64. 40
Diet and Obesity: Children The assumption is that most children grow out of their obesity That is what you see with a national sample of African-American children in the U.S. Unfortunately that is not what we see with the DDHP cohort 41
Change in Weight-for-Age from Baseline (2002-03) to Wave 3 (2007) 80 70 72.2 68.9 70.1 Percentage of Children 60 50 40 30 20 18.5 23.3 32.8 40.7 16.9 Underw eight Healthy At Risk Overw eight 10 0 14.2 12.4 10.4 7.4 8.4 1.9 3.5 2.6 Underweight Healthy At Risk Overweight 42
Transition Probablities of Weight Class among African-American children in NLSY (3-5 year olds) 100.0 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 Normal Overweight Obese Normal 69.1 67.0 50.1 Overweight 9.1 10.9 23.4 Obese 21.8 22.1 26.5 43
Transition Probablities of Weight Class among DDHP children 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Normal Overweight Obese Normal weight 61.7 5.2 1.2 Overweight 19.6 22.2 3.4 Obese 18.7 72.6 95.4 44
Diet and Obesity: Children This suggests that we need to act very early in life to prevent obesity in our children as they grow older 45
Determinants of Caries Development and Progression Social & Behavioral Factors 46
Psychosocial factors: Depression Depressive symptoms are highly prevalent among caregivers 35% scored 16 or above on CES-D 16% scored 26 or above Protective Factors: financial support (OR=0.59) childcare support (OR=0.40) emotional support (OR=0.32) Risk Factors: experience of everyday discrimination (OR=2.7) Seifert K, Finlayson TL, Williams DR, Delva J, Ismail AI. Modifiable risk and protective factors for depressive symptoms in low-income African-American mothers. Am J of Orthopsychiatry 2007; 77(1): 113-23. 47
Depressive Symptoms in Caregivers at Baseline (2002-03) and Wave 3 (2007) 80 74.6 70 Percentage of Adults 60 50 40 30 20 14.9 No Symptoms Both Waves Symptoms Both Waves Increase in Symptoms Decrease in Symptoms 10 0 4.4 Baseline to Wave 3 6.1 48
Social Support and Depressive Symptoms 40 35 30 CES-D Score 25 20 15 18.5 19.4 20.3 22.7 23.2 Yes No 10 12.9 12.8 12.8 13.0 13.2 5 0 Errands*** Financial *** Transportation *** Childcare *** Emotional*** *** p<.001 49
Discrimination and Depressive Symptoms 30 25 25.8 21.9 CES-D score 20 15 13.8 15.8 W1 W3 10 9.3 8.3 5 0 Never Fewer than 5 areas 5 or more areas Areas include: being treated with less courtesy, less respect, receiving poorer service, people acting as if I am not smart, as if they are afraid of me, as if I am dishonest, as if they are better than me, called names, threatened or harassed, unfairly stopped by police, unfairly discouraged by a teacher. ***Differences within wave are statistically significant (p<.001) 50
Stressors and Depressive Symptoms 25 20 20.9 CES-D Score 15 10 14.4 15.2 13.4 15.6 13.5 No Yes 5 0 Crime occurs often Drugs a serious problem** Had to cut or skip meals b/c of money*** ** p<.01 *** p<.001 51
Psychosocial factors: Fatalism 79% of caregivers endorsed a fatalistic health belief Children of Fatalistic Caregivers: Brushed less frequently (8.5 v. 10.6 times per week, p<0.01) Finlayson TL, Siefert K, Ismail AI, Sohn W. Maternal self-efficacy and 1-5 year old children s brushing habits. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2007; 35: 272-81. Experienced more severe disease at baseline 2.7 times that of children of non-fatalistic caregivers Finlayson TL, Seifert, Ismail AI, Sohn W. Psychosocial factors and oral health among low-income African-American children in Detroit. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2007; 35: 439-48. Experienced more new disease over a 2-year period (OR=1.3 for new d t mfs; OR=1.4 for new d 2 mfs) 52
Caregiver Fatalism and New Tooth Decay in Children Between Baseline (2002-03) and Wave 3 (2007) 7 6 2.9 2.9 Number of Lesions 5 4 3 2 4.0 2.0 3.1 2.4 3.5 3.9 Cavitated Non-cavitated 1 0 Fatal-Fatal Not Fatal-Not Fatal Becam e Not Fatal Becam e Fatal 53
Psychosocial factors: Self-efficacy If mothers were confident in their ability to make sure their child s teeth were brushed, children brushed more frequently (r=0.18, p<0.0001) Finlayson TL, Siefert K, Ismail AI, Sohn W. Maternal self-efficacy and 1-5 year old children s brushing habits. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2007; 35: 272-81. Being tired, busy or depressed were most common situations in which mothers were not confident that they could take care of their children s oral health needs 54
Psychosocial factors: Parenting Stress Parenting stress scores are fairly normally distributed; most report sometimes feeling stressed Parenting stress is inversely related to early childhood caries. 1-3 year olds: odds of having ECC is reduced by about one-third for every unit increase in parenting stress (OR=0.62, p<0.05) 4-5 year olds: odds of having ECC is reduced by about one-fourth (OR=0.72, p<0.10) Finlayson TL, Seifert, Ismail AI, Sohn W. Psychosocial factors and oral health among low-income African-American children in Detroit. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2007; 35: 439-48. 55
Religiosity and Tooth Decay Children of caregivers who reported being Very/fairly religious were less likely to develop tooth decay than children of less religious caregivers 56
Use of Health Services and Caries 57
Type of Dental Insurance and Caries in Children at Baseline (2002-03) 5 4.5 Number of Lesions 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 1.3 1.9 2.1 2.1 2.7 2.2 Cavitated Non-cavitated 0.5 0 Private Medicaid None 58
Type of Dental Insurance and New Non-cavitated and Cavitated Lesions in Children between Baseline (2002-03) and Wave 3 (2007) 7 Number of Lesions 6 5 4 3 2 2.3 3.9 2.9 3.7 2.8 4.1 New Cavitated New Non-cavitated 1 0 Private Medicaid None 59
Dental Health of Children Receiving Dental Care Under Medicaid 60
DDHP-Medicaid data analysis Medicaid claims data Wave 1 Baseline Exam (n = 698) Visited dentists (n = 350) Did not visit dentists (n = 348) Prevention-only visit (n = 216) Treatment visit (n = 134) Wave 2 Exam (n = 698) Caries Transition Matrix between W1 and W2 61
Type of Dental Visit and Caries Status N (%) Children with untreated cavities at baseline % of cavities at baseline that were left untreated at Wave 2 No dental visit 348 (50.9%) 20.4% 74.9% Preventive-only visit 216 (30.4%) 25.8% 75.2% Treatment visit 134 (18.7%) 55.8% 28.6% Total 698 28.7% 55.5% 62
Summary: Children s Caries Status Child s age Caregiver s age Caregiver s tooth decay Child s soda consumption Caregiver having a fatalistic belief ( most children eventually develop dental cavities ) Parental stress Religiosity Social support (SES,WIC participation, child insurance weak) 63
Lead Levels in Children and Adults 64
Lead Levels Adults: 5 with high blood lead levels (0.5%) at baseline Re-tested at Wave 3 none with high lead Children: 35 with high blood lead levels (5.0%) in 2004-05 Re-tested in 2007 1 with high lead, but lower than baseline 65
Policy Implications 66
Policy Implications Dental Caries We need comprehensive, integrated, and sustainable models to combat the problem of tooth decay in children and adults Medicaid policy should change: all care should be provided, not only preventive care Collaboration among the different programs in Detroit should be the basis for forming solutions Engagement of families and organizations in developing solutions is essential 67
Summary Prevalence and severity of tooth decay is high among low-income children in Detroit Development of caries is fast: By the age of 2: 20% have at least one cavity 30% have severe early tooth decay (including non-cavitated lesions) Access to dental care is a major problem Providing ONLY preventive care is ineffective Caregivers tooth decay experience is a significant predictor of infant tooth decay development and progression Children s soda drinking pattern over time increases the development and progression of tooth decay Psychosocial factors (fatalistic belief, parenting stress, social support, preventive orientation) play important roles in tooth decay development 68
Next Steps Community-based interventions to eliminate disparities Dental anxiety Social support Motivational education Diet and nutritional literacy Management and coordination of dental care Best clinical care focusing on prevention Community/home follow-up Starts in 2010 69
Thank you! 70
Transition of Disease: Children w1->w2 w1->w3 w2->w3 Increment N Mean SD N Mean SD N Mean SD Primary Teeth d1 599 3.68 3.44 547 4.10 3.35 499 2.72 2.80 d2 329 5.14 5.44 303 6.07 6.80 277 4.49 5.32 f 118 2.68 2.91 135 3.82 3.47 122 2.29 3.28 fd1 63 1.08 0.97 146 2.27 2.63 132 2.00 2.55 fd2 32 1.78 1.48 56 1.71 1.52 52 1.48 1.36 c 24 3.44 3.95 28 6.02 5.21 25 3.36 4.82 m(97) 55 3.10 3.05 12 2.29 1.51 10 0.95 0.83 D12mfs 790 5.03 7.14 638 7.66 8.30 584 4.41 6.64 D2mfs 790 2.71 4.97 638 4.45 6.75 584 2.74 5.23 Permanent Teeth d1 143 4.18 2.89 374 5.37 3.45 342 2.16 2.99 d2 25 1.64 1.44 89 1.97 1.51 83 1.42 1.43 f 12 3.00 1.71 38 2.76 2.12 37 1.59 2.03 fd1 2 1.00 0.00 31 2.52 1.82 30 1.90 1.95 fd2 1 1.00. 6 1.83 1.60 6 1.17 1.17 c 1 0.50. 0.. 0.. m(97) 0.. 0.. 0.. d12mfs 790 0.84 2.23 654 3.62 4.43 599 1.46 3.14 d2mfs 790 0.10 0.58 654 0.56 1.59 599 0.35 1.23 71
Transition of Disease: Adults w1->w2 w1->w3 w2->w3 Increment N Mean SD N Mean SD N Mean SD d1 760 9.15 7.43 614 13.74 13.33 566 11.23 11.74 d2 619 3.94 4.35 512 6.18 7.35 469 5.19 5.75 f 492-0.49 2.92 294 0.31 3.45 273 0.21 2.95 fd1 325 1.58 2.38 339 3.75 4.83 316 3.90 4.43 fd2 242 1.29 1.49 194 2.19 2.43 182 2.11 2.41 c 38 0.36 1.20 32 0.66 1.46 31 0.56 1.18 cd1 2 1.50 2.12 3 3.67 3.06 3 3.67 3.06 cd2 3 1.67 1.15 5 3.00 3.08 5 2.60 2.88 m(97) 391 1.38 3.14 368 2.76 5.36 344 1.80 4.54 d12mfs 773 8.91 12.22 614 19.33 21.24 566 12.95 19.85 d2mfs 773 2.95 5.68 614 6.89 9.44 566 5.13 7.75 72
Disease Transitions Between Baseline (2002-03) and Wave 3 (2007) New d 2 mfs New d t mfs New Non- Cavitated New Cavitated New Filled 0 New Filled 1 New Filled 2 New Missing due to caries Baseline Age Incidence Severity Incidence Severity Incidence Severity Children 0-2 57.3 4.9 88.1 9.3 84.7 4.6 47.0 3.3 17.2 0.8 15.9 0.4 6.0 0.1 0.6 0.0 Incidence 3-6 57.6 3.4 78.9 5.5 73.7 2.5 43.4 2.1 18.7 0.7 20.0 0.5 7.5 0.1 2.2 0.1 Adults 18-24 81.7 8.3 85.0 21.8 94.2 15.4 79.6 6.7 14.9 0.4 34.7 1.6 14.4 0.5 30.1 1.4 25-34 75.6 6.4 84.7 18.9 93.4 13.9 75.1 4.7 16.4 0.0 50.8 1.9 26.3 0.7 38.3 1.7 35-54 67.4 6.2 77.2 18.5 88.2 11.6 75.3 4.7 9.0-0.3 47.5 2.7 32.4 0.9 34.1 2.2 55+ 53.4 8.1 67.2 13.5 67.2 5.5 31.8 3.6 11.7 0.1 13.7 0.3 19.3 0.7 27.5 4.4 Severity Incidence Severity Incidence Severity Incidence Severity Incidence Severity Red indicates significant difference between age groups (p<0.05) 73
Motivational Intervention (Wave 2) Motivational Interviewing (MI) Individual-centered, directive Aid caregiver in making informed decisions and adopt behaviors that will prevent child from developing disease Randomly assigned children into two groups DVD-only Caregiver shown18 minute video focusing on how to keep a child free from tooth decay Received brochure with child s picture and standard recipe of goals for preventing tooth decay DVD + MI Showed video Developed personal goals for preventing tooth decay Discussed barriers to reaching goals Received brochure with child s picture and personalized goals for preventing tooth decay 74
Motivational Intervention: Evaluation Wave 2 Evaluation Questionnaire Oral health behaviors (e.g. brushing frequency) Oral health practices (e.g. providing health snacks, taking child to the dentist) Oral Health Self-efficacy Oral Health Knowledge Oral Health Related Fatalism Wave 2 Follow-up (6 months post-intervention) Oral health behaviors (e.g. brushing frequency) Oral health practices (e.g. providing health snacks, taking child to the dentist) Wave 3 Evaluation Questionnaire Oral health behaviors (e.g. brushing frequency) Oral health practices (e.g. providing health snacks, taking child to the dentist) Oral Health Self-efficacy Oral Health Knowledge Oral Health Related Fatalism Treatment Self-Regulation Questionnaire 75
Motivational Intervention: 6-month Results Wave 2 Follow-up - differences Same caregiver in both waves (n=582) Behaviors DVD+MI DVD-Only p Times child brushes per day 2.0 1.8 ** Days child brushes at bedtime 4.9 4.5 * Caregiver reports checking for pre-cavities 76.9 66.9 ** Caregiver reports making sure child brushes at bedtime 80.1 73.6 * Caregiver reports making sure child brushes 2x per day 78.3 70.8 * * p<.05; ** p<.01; *** p<.001 76
Motivational Intervention: 2-Year Results Wave 3 Evaluation Same caregiver in both waves (n=582) Behaviors (Differences only) DVD+MI DVD-Only p Caregivers reporting making sure child brushes at bedtime 74.3% 68.0% * Caregivers reporting making sure child brushes 2x per day 77.4% 71.8% * I don t think about my child s teeth or overall oral health (1=Not at all true 10=Very true) 1.18 1.45 * * p<.05; ** p<.01; *** p<.001 Significant differences in times child brushes per day, days per week child brushes at bedtime, and proportion of caregivers reporting checking for precavities disappear; however, results are in expected direction. 77
Motivational Intervention: 2-Year Results Wave 3 Evaluation Same caregiver in both waves (n=582) Child Dental Outcomes (W2-W3) DVD+MI DVD-Only p Primary teeth New non-cavitated 2.76 2.71 New cavitated 4.47 4.51 New dtmfs 4.46 4.43 New d2mfs 2.85 2.61 Permanent teeth New non-cavitated 2.23 2.17 New cavitated 1.57 1.33 New dtmfs 1.54 1.45 New d2mfs 0.33 0.38 78
Motivational Intervention: Results 6-month follow-up: brief MI intervention appears to have impact on: Behavioral outcomes: More MI Caregivers report: Greater brushing frequency for the children Checking for pre-cavities 2-year follow-up: Behavioral outcomes: More MI caregivers report: Ensuring child brushes at bedtime Ensuring child brushes 2x per day Clinical outcomes: no differences (preliminary) Continuing to examine clinical outcomes with zero-inflated negative binomial models accounting for sampling and weighting 79