Chapter 3 A Key to Guiding children Effectively All rights reserved. Part 1 Perception and Memory 3-2 Factors That Affect Teacher s Guidance Perception-process of organizing information obtained through the senses Memory-basic cognitive process by which children store information and then later retrieve it 3-3 1
Perception Problems affecting how children pay attention Scanning and searching are poor Ignoring irrelevant information may be difficult Focus may be on one thing at a time Impulsiveness affects perception Disabilities affect perception Changes in perception help children pay attention as they get older Selecting what to ignore or attend to improves over time 3-4 Memory Forms of memory Changes in memory Milestones in memory 3-5 Forms of Memory Long-term memory Refers to storage for the information we perceive and then store as a permanent record Short-term memory Also known as working memory Storage site for temporarily placing new information or well known information we need access to Recognition memory Refers to a feeling of familiarity with a stimulus that we have seen or experienced and that we encounter once again Recall memory Refers to memories for which a child has to retrieve or call up some information 3-6 2
Milestones in Memory Birth to 5 months Recognition memory is good Recall memory can be retrieved if cued or reminded Five months to 1 year Recognition memory and recall memory improve One year to 3 years Recall memory improves even more Four years to 12 years Memory improves remarkably Pure recall memory with minimal to no cues Disabilities can affect memory Children with autism have a poor memory for complex and visual stimuli Children with autism have about the same recognition memory 3-7 Changes in Memory Changes in basic capacity Increased working memory allows for faster processing and manipulation of information Changes in strategies for remembering things More effective methods for getting information into long-term memory and retrieving it later have been learned Changes in knowledge about memory Understanding of why memory strategies work and therefore perform memory tasks more effectively Changes in knowledge about the world Increased knowledge as one ages 3-8 Part 2 Social Cognition: How Children Think about Others 3-9 3
Stages of Cognitive Development Preoperational thinking Concrete operational thinking 3-10 Preoperational Thinking Describing others Describe another person by referring to physical qualities Understanding accidents or intentional behavior Do not understand the concept of intentionality Viewing friendship Describe friends egocentrically, as someone that plays with her 3-11 Concrete Operational Thinking Describing others Use fewer concrete terms and begin using broad psychological terms to describe other people Understanding accidental or intentional behavior understand the concept of intentionality due to diminished egocentricity Viewing friendship Less egocentric, increased sense of moral obligation and responsibility for themselves 3-12 4
Part 3 Self-Control and Prosocial Behavior 3-13 Self-Control and Prosocial Behavior Self-control-voluntary, internal regulation of behavior Prosocial behavior-an action that benefits another person or animal 3-14 Self-Control How children demonstrate selfcontrol How self-control evolves 3-15 5
How Children Demonstrate Self- Control Control impulses, wait, and postpone action Tolerate frustration Postpone immediate gratification Set a plan in motion and carry it out 3-16 How Self-Control evolves Self-control evolves from the outside to the inside Responsible adults control infant s and toddler s ego functions Adults encourage children to internalize and take responsibility for themselves as they grow older Self-control develops slowly Begins to develop around the age of 2 Control increases as cognitive, perpetual, and linguistic systems develop Self-control evolves haltingly in a sometimes you see it and sometimes you don t fashion 3-17 How Self-Control Evolves in Milestones Birth to approximately 12 months Infants are not capable of self-control A time to learn that the self is separate from other people Between age 1 and age 2 Begin to be able to start, stop, change, or maintain motor acts and emotional signals Demonstrate and emerging awareness of demands made by caregivers Caregivers discover children can follow and adult s lead At approximately 24 months Can represent experiences and recall what someone has said or done Ability to transition to developing self-control Limited ability to control themselves and delay gratification At about 3 years Can use strategies to delay gratification Strategies set the stage for better self-control 3-18 6
Prosocial Behavior Forms of prosocial behavior Children need specific self competencies to act compassionately Cognitive competencies Emotional competencies Skill development 3-19 Forms of Prosocial Behavior Sharing Dividing, giving, and bestowing Helping Involves performing simple everyday acts of kindness and rescue Cooperating Working together willingly to accomplish a job or task 3-20 Cognitive Competencies Sense of self Knowledge that he or she is an individual and separate from other individuals Identity needs Ability to recognize what somebody needs Make things happen See oneself as a person who can make things happen Language Language skills to describe how others or themselves may feel Memory Sophisticated enough memory to allow him to keep in somebody s need in mind long enough to act on it 3-21 7
Emotional Competencies Decoding emotion in another person s face Ability to look at a person s or animal s face and make sense of his or her facial expression Responding to the emotions of others Ability to discriminate among different emotions and respond to them Demonstrating empathy Ability to participate in another person s or animal s feelings 3-22 How Very Young Children are Likely to Show Prosocial Behavior Up to approximately 12 months Pats or rubs Gives an object 14 to 20 months Kisses or hugs Gives some object Might try to protect someone 20 months to 2 ½ years All of the above, plus the following: Gives physical assistance Tries to get help from a third person Asks questions indicating concern Gives advice to a person who is upset or hurt Might offer reassurance to a person or animal 3-23 Levels of Perspective Taking 3-6 years Egocentric perspective with no distinction between one and another's perspective 6-8 years Unable to take another's perspective 8-10 years Can take another s perspective Sees self as others do Level not reached by everyone 10-12 years More sophisticated in taking another's perspective Aware of recursive nature of different perspectives Adolescence and adulthood Very sophisticated in perspective taking Believes that different perspectives form a network Has conceptualized society s viewpoints on legal and moral issues 3-24 8
Skill Development Children need to know how to help, share, or cooperate 3-25 9