Psychology of Consciousness Chapter 4 Consciousness I. What is Consciousness? II. What Happens When We Sleep? III. What Are Dreams and What Do They Mean? IV. Is it Possible to Control Consciousness by Using Biofeedback, Hypnosis and Meditation? V. How do Drugs Alter Consciousness? 2 I. What is Consciousness? Awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings we experience at a given moment State of awareness of internal & external Events Waking consciousness Altered states of consciousness Related to activity of the neurons 3 1
II. Sleep The Sleep Wakefulness Cycle: Circadian Rhythms Internally generated patterns of bodily functions that vary over a ~24-hour period Function even in the absence of normal cues 4 Circadian Rhythms Disruptions to the circadian rhythm Can lead to thinking less clearly, inattentiveness, and feeling sleepy Due to shifting work schedules, jet lag, pulling an all nighter 5 Circadian Rhythms Accommodating disruptions to the circadian rhythm Change schedule slowly Follow normal schedule, rather than trying to adjust to the new time zone Get exposure to bright light to increase wakefulness Small doses of melatonin promote sleep 6 2
Sleep Stages REM and NREM Sleep 1. Studying Sleep Electroencephalograms (EEGs) Graphically record brain-wave activity through electrodes placed on the scalp and forehead EEG waves vary in frequency and amplitude 7 These differ in frequency: EEGs These differ in amplitude: 8 Two Types of Sleep 1. Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep High-frequency, low amplitude brain-wave activity Systematic eye movements also occur during REM REM sleep occurs only after four stages of non-rem (NREM) sleep 9 3
Two Types of Sleep 2. NREM Sleep Increasing bodily relaxation Slower EEG activity Slower heart rate and respiration More difficult to awaken as the four stages of NREM sleep progress 10 Sleep Stages Stages 1-4 Non-Rapid Eye Movement NREM) Light sleep. Low amp, mixed frequency. Easily awakened. Low amp. Relaxed deeper sleep. Slower & high amp, low frequency. Delta waves. Most difficult to awaken. cycles 30-40 minutes. ( 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1). 11 Stages of Sleep Stage 1 Characterized by rapid, low-amplitude brain waves Stage 2 Slower, more regular wave pattern Sleep spindles Stage 3 Higher peaks and lower valleys of waves Stage 4 Slower and more regular, least responsive to outside stimulation 4
REM Sleep Very different from NREM sleep Difficult to distinguish from being awake on the basis of physiological measures People in REM are more difficult to awaken Sleepwalking can not occur during REM sleep 13 REM Sleep Sleepers are more likely to report dreams when awakened from REM Dreams do occur in other stages Dreams are more vivid, long-lasting, and detailed in REM sleep REM Sleep sometimes called paradoxical sleep Asleep but aroused Small movements, but paralyzed 14 Sleep Deprivation The longer a person is deprived of sleep, the greater the effect will be 15 5
Sleep Deprivation Chronic neglect of sleep is a common and dangerous problem Can not study total sleep deprivation in humans for ethical reasons However, rats totally deprived of sleep die 16 Why do we sleep? Because we are tired Sleep has a restorative function What is restored by sleep has not been identified Fatigue does not relate directly to sleep Bedridden people sleep as much as people on their feet all day Heavy exercise has little effect on need for sleep 17 Repair & Restoration Theory Makes repairs, restores digestion, removes waste, restore Norepi & dopamine Neural Basis: hypothalamus, forebrain, limbic system, brain stem. Exercises neurons. Activation-Synthesis Theory 18 6
Dreams -for-survival Theory Permit one to reconsider and reprocess during sleep information that is critical for one s daily survival Evolution/Adaptation Theory Sleep requires less energy and keeps us out of danger However, also seems to represent a non-adaptive vulnerability Hibernation: Decreases heart rate, brain activity, conserve energy, metabolism, body temp 20 Consolidation of Memory Rehearse or preserve information learned though out the day 21 7
Why do we sleep? Obviously, no single theory fully explains why we sleep Sleep likely serves many functions Several theories may be needed to explain it Is there a sleep switch? What makes people go to sleep and wake up? Brain systems in the hypothalamus seem to turn on sleeping and waking 22 Sleep Disorders Dysomnias: Predominantly disturbances in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. NOT DUE TO DRUGS/ALCOHOL, MEDICATION OR GENERAL MEDICAL CONDITION DSM IV: Primary sleep disorders 23 Narcolepsy Sudden, uncontrollable episodes of sleep People with narcolepsy experience muscle weakness and fall uncontrollably asleep Affects about 1 in 2,000 people Has a genetic component Effective drug treatment has been developed 24 8
Sleep Apnea The sleeper stops breathing, chokes, then wakens briefly Causes airflow to stop for at least 15 seconds Loud snoring is a symptom Can be life threatening Associated with excessive daytime sleepiness, and possibly memory loss, severe headaches, work-related injuries, SIDS Middle-aged, overweight men are at increased risk, but sleep apnea can even affect children Several effective therapies that keep the airway clear have been developed 25 Insomnia Difficulty in getting or staying asleep Affects as many as 1 in 10 people Insomniacs feel listless and tired during the day Etiology: stress, anxiety, bad sleep habits, psychopathology, age More common in females Behavioral treatments for insomnia include relaxation training, thought restructuring, and selfhypnosis 26 Hypersomnia Excessive daytime sleepiness (for at least one month). - Falls asleep easily w/i 5 min. anytime - Common with obesity - Usually treated with stimulants, antidepressants. 27 9
Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorder Mismatch between a person s sleep wake pattern that is normal with his/her environment 28 Parasomnias Predominant disturbance is an abnormal behavioral or physiological event occurring during sleep 29 Nightmare Disorder Formerly known as Dream Anxiety Disorder Bad dreams Repeated awakenings from sleep with detailed recall of frightening dreams. Occurs during periods of REM 30 10
Sleep Terror Disorder Repeated episodes of abrupt awakenings from sleep, usually with a panicky scream. Person is difficult to calm. No recollection the next morning. Panic attacks that occur within 60 90 minutes of falling asleep They occur in NREM sleep, usually stage 4 31 Sleep Terror Disorder They are not nightmares Sleep terrors are common in children between ages 3 and 8 Cause is not well understood 32 Sleep Walking Disorder Repeated episodes of the person leaving bed & walking about w/o being conscious of the episode or later remembering it 33 11
Sleep Walking Disorder Runs in families More common in male children It tends to decrease with age Sleepwalkers are in stage 4 sleep In stage 4, motor portions of the brain are active Cognitive portions of the brain show little activity in this stage Person may be confused or startled upon awakening 34 III. Dreams and Dreaming What is a Dream? A state of consciousness that occurs during sleep Usually accompanied by vivid imagery Associated with REM sleep Dreams do occur during NREM sleep, but tend to be less bizarre and contain less action imagery Most people have dreams every night, but forget them when they do not awaken during or soon after a dream More dreaming occurs during the second part of the night If we dream in 80% of REM periods, we dream three or four times a night 35 Content of Dreams Dreams are mostly visual, and most are in color Most dreams focus on events and people a person comes into contact with Lucid dreaming occurs when one is aware of dreaming as it happens 36 12
Dream Theories Psychodynamic Views (Freud) Dreams are the royal road to the unconscious Freud believed dreams expressed desires, wishes, and unfulfilled needs that exist in the unconscious 37 Freud Two types of content Manifest content Consists of its overt story line, characters, and setting Latent content The deeper meaning, usually involving symbolic ideas and wishes These wishes might make the person uncomfortable if expressed overtly 38 Manifest and Latent Content 13
Psychodynamic Views Carl Jung (1875 1961) Three purposes of dreams: An attempt to make sense of life s tasks To compensate for unconscious urges To predict the future Jung asserted dreams give expression to the collective unconscious 40 Carl Jung Collective Unconscious Storehouse of primitive ideas and images inherited from our ancestors that is shared by all people These inherited ideas and images are archetypes Representations of archetypes emerge as dreams 41 Modern Approaches Evidence from neuroscience seen as consistent with Freud s view that dreams are expressions of the unconscious Other see similarities with Native American philosophies Dreams as a route to empowerment and enlightenment Not seen as a separate state of consciousness, but as an altered reality 42 14
Cognitive View Dreams reflect the same kind of thinking people do when they are awake Dreams express current wishes, desires, and issues the person is dealing with Bilingual people dream about things related to the language they used before sleeping 43 IV. Controlling Consciousness Biofeedback: Used to learn to control the activity of the system Usually uses electronic equipment to measure the status of the system 44 Hypnosis A procedure during which a person s sensations, perceptions, thoughts, or behaviors change because of suggestions made to the person 45 15
Hypnosis First used as a treatment in the late 1700s by Franz Anton Mesmer His work was discredited, and hypnosis fell into disfavor Opinions are currently divided on the definition of hypnosis and its uses James Braid: Father of modern hypnotism 46 Is hypnosis an altered state of consciousness? What do you think? Yes People can control physiological processes while hypnotized that they normally can not Support from PET scan studies No Some people are more suggestible than others and are simply playing the role of a hypnotized person Support from studies in which participants are given motivating instructions 47 Meditation The use of a variety of techniques to produce a state of consciousness characterized by a sense of detachment These techniques include concentration, and restriction of incoming stimuli However, meditation is not relaxation Relaxation is a by-product of meditation 48 16
V. Drugs and Altering Consciousness A drug is a chemical substance that alters biological or cognitive processes Psychoactive drugs Alter behavior, thought, or perception Therefore, can affect consciousness Properties of Drugs Tolerance Higher and higher doses of a drug are needed to produce the same effect 49 Properties of Drugs Dependence Occurs when the drug becomes part of the body s functioning Withdrawal Occurs when dependence has developed and use of the drug is discontinued Addiction A combination of tolerance and dependence 50 Influences Psychoactive Drugs Influence a person s emotions, perceptions, and behavior Addictive Drugs Produce a biological or psychological dependence in the user 17
Psychoactive Drugs Must affect the nervous system Most do so by crossing the blood brain barrier Mechanism that prevents some molecules from entering the brain Once in the brain, drugs alter neural activity 53 Effects on the CNS Drugs whose effect on the central nervous system causes a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension Caffeine Nicotine Amphetamines Methamphetamine Cocaine 18
Effects on the NS Impedes the nervous system by causing neurons to fire more slowly Alcohol Intoxication Binge drinking Sedatives/Hypnotics A class of drugs that relax and calm a user Can induce sleep at higher doses Depress neural activity Sometimes called sedatives or depressants 57 19
Alcohol Produces tolerance and dependence Crosses blood brain barrier Depresses brain activity Dampens arousal Decreases inhibitions Slows reaction time Form of Depressant Prescribed by physicians to induce sleep or reduce stress Rohypnol Date rape drug 58 Sedative Hypnotics Tranquilizers Barbiturates Opiates Derived from the opium poppy Opium, morphine, and heroin Synthetic opiates Oxycodone (Oxycontin) and Hydrocodone (Vicodin) Chemically similar and have similar effects Medical uses include pain relief 59 Opiates In the brain, opiates occupy endorphin receptors Neurochemicals manufactured in the brain A natural mechanism of pain relief Opiates produce high tolerance and dependence in those who use them for pleasure Few people given opiates for pain relief in hospitals become addicted 60 20
Stimulants Drugs that increase alertness, reduce fatigue, and elevate mood states Also tend to increase blood pressure, heart rate, metabolic rate, and decrease appetite Act on the peripheral and central nervous systems All stimulants have tolerance and dependence properties 61 Stimulants Caffeine Nicotine Addictive drug in tobacco Does not have strong tolerance properties Does lead to strong dependence and unpleasant withdrawal symptoms 62 Amphetamines Also produce strong dependence and tolerance Produce arousal and alertness Some people use amphetamines for their appetitesuppressing effects Continued use can cause altered thoughts Unfounded suspicion Symptoms similar to schizophrenia 63 21
Cocaine Increases alertness Rapidly creates positive feelings These effects are short-lived, creating an urge to use more Strong potential for abuse 64 Psychedelic Drugs Affect mood, thought, memory, judgment, and perception Sometimes called hallucinogens Alter perception and produce vivid imagery Their impact varies widely depending on the user and the particular drug 65 LSD Lysergic Acid Diethylamide Produces altered visual and auditory perception Sometimes causes changes in time and distance perception 66 22
Ecstasy Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) Causes massive release of serotonin in the brain Produces feelings of well-being and kinship This action may be dangerous May lead to prolonged problems regulating serotonin levels May contribute to depression and memory problems 67 Marijuana The dried leaves and flowering tops of the cannabis sativa plant Most widely used illicit drug Reactions vary widely Elation and well-being Sleepiness Paranoia and nausea Marijuana affects judgment and coordination 68 Marijuana Produces neither tolerance nor dependence But, some people use marijuana to the point that it interferes with their lives Seems to create a psychological dependence in some 69 23
Hallucinogens Produces or changes in the perceptual process Marijuana Tetrahydrocann abinol (THC) MDMA (Ecstasy) Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) Drug Use and Abuse Legal or over-the-counter medications are often not thought of as drugs Leads to underestimating hazards of drugs such as alcohol and tobacco Alcohol and tobacco present the biggest drug problem in the United States 51% of adolescents are current drinkers and 27% are current smokers 71 What is Substance Abuse? When use leads to negative consequences When drugs are overused and relied on to deal with everyday life A person is a substance abuser if: The person has used a substance for one month Use has caused legal, personal, social, or vocational problems The person repeatedly uses the substance even in situations when doing so is hazardous 72 24
With Dependence Withdrawal symptoms will occur if use is decreased or stopped Withdrawal symptoms are typically the opposite of a drug s effects Typically unpleasant Can be stopped by taking more drugs Doing so is often considered addiction 73 25