The Sport Psychologist, 1998,12,440-449 O 1998 Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc. The Influence of Type of Sport and Time of Season on Athletes' Use of Imagery Krista Munroe, Craig Hall, and Sharon Simms University of Western Ontario Robert Weinberg Miami University Previous research (e.g., Barr & Hall, 1992) suggests that imagery is used differentially throughout an athlete's competitive season. The influence of time of season (early vs. late) and type of sport (team vs. individual) on athletes' use of imagery was examined. Male and female varsity athletes representing 10 sports completed the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, in press) early and late in a competitive season. Results indicated that cognitive specific (CS) imagery significantly increased for fencing, field hockey, rugby, soccer, and wrestling. Motivational Specific (MS), Motivational General-Mastery (MG-M), and Motivational General-Arousal (MG-A) imagery showed a significant increase from Times 1 to 2 for rugby, soccer, and wrestling. Most sports demonstrated a significant increase in MS imagery. For all sports, except badminton, cognitive general (CG) imagery increased. Results indicate that imagery use changes during the competitive season, but this depends on the sport. From Ray Floyd in golf (Bull, Albinson, & Shambrook, 1996) to Rob Andrew in rugby (Bullet al., 1996) and Brian Orser in figure skating (Orser & Milton, 1988), most elite athletes report using mental imagery. They imagine exactly what they want to have happen before actually performing. Research suggests imagery not only helps athletes learn new skills but also facilitates their performance in competitive situations (see Hall, Schmidt, Durand, & Buckolz, 1994, for a review of the imagery literature). Therefore, researchers have started to investigate how athletes use imagery in sports such as figure skating (Rodgers, Hall, & Buckolz, 1991), rowing (Barr & Hall, 1992), and soccer (Salmon, Hall, & Haslam, 1994). Krista Munroe, Craig Hall, and Sharon Simrns are with the School of Kinesiology at the University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada, N6A 3K7. Robert Weinberg is with the Department of PHS at Miami University, Phillips Hall, Oxford, OH 45056.
Athletes' Use of Imagery 441 Much of this research has focused on Paivio's (1985) proposal that imagery plays both cognitive and motivational roles in mediating motor behavior. Paivio (1985) outlined a conceptual framework in which the cognitive and motivational roles of imagery operate at a specific or general level. In terms of cognitive function, imagery involves rehearsing skills and strategies. The motivational function of imagery entails symbolically representing behavioral situations or goals and the activities required to reach them. Most early imagery research focused on the cognitive function of imagery. However, following Paivio's contention that it also operates on a motivational level, researchers have taken interest in examining this function of imagery. Martin and Hall (1995) pursued this avenue of research, examining whether imagery enhances intrinsic motivation on a golf-putting task. They found that beginner golfers who used mental imagery spent significantly more time practicing the task, set higher goals, had more realistic expectations of themselves, and adhered more to the training program than golfers in a control condition. Moritz, Hall, Martin, and Vadocz (1996) examined the specific image content of confident athletes and found that high sport-confident roller skaters used more mastery and arousal imagery. These results would suggest that for sport confidence, the imagery of sportrelated mastery experiences and emotions are more important than imaged rehearsal of specific sport skills. Vadocz, Hall, and Moritz (1997) explored the relationships among imagery use and ability, competitive anxiety, and performance and found that imagery can be used to enhance self-confidence and help control competitive anxiety levels. Imagery measures are a continued concern for researchers. As Paivio (1985) argued, "the trick is to find one [a measure] that is most directly related to the specific task under consideration" (p. 27s). Drawing from Paivio's model, Hall et al. (1998) designed the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ) as a general measure to assess the motivational and cognitive functions of imagery. The instrument was developed over four studies in which one important extension of Paivio's model was discovered. Hall et al. found that the motivational general function of imagery included two distinct components: motivational general-mastery (MG-M) and motivational general-arousal (MG-A). The MG-M subscale incorporates such images as mastering the competitive situation, being in control and mentally tough, and staying focused. The MG-A subscale incorporates images such as getting psyched up for the event, and the stress of competing. Past studies have been limited by a failure to examine any changes in athletes' imagery use during a competitive season. Hall, Rodgers, and Barr (1990), who examined imagery use in selected sports, found that athletes reported using this technique more in conjunction with competition than training. Salmon et al. (1994) reported a similar trend for soccer players of various skill levels. In addition, Barr and Hall (1992) examined the use of imagery by high-school, college-, and national-level rowers and found that they too reported using imagery most just prior to competition. These results suggest that imagery is used differentially throughout the competitive season. However, investigators have yet to systematically examine how imagery might change, for example, from early in the season, when training is emphasized, to later on, when the emphasis might shift to competing effectively. Therefore, the f ~st purpose of the present study was to assess the use of imagery at these two times (i.e., early and late) during the competitive season. We predicted that athletes would use imagery early in the season for
442 Munroe, Hall, Simms, and Weinberg predominantly cognitive specific purposes (e.g., learning new skills) but incorporate it later on for motivational purposes (e.g., getting psyched up to compete in an event or controlling arousal). Researchers have considered whether variables such as gender, competitive level (e.g., elite vs. nonelite performers), and type of sport (e.g., individual vs. team) influence the way that athletes employ imagery. With respect to gender, Barr and Hall (1992) found only minor differences in imagery use between male and female rowers. Salmon et al. (1994) also found very few significant differences in responses for male and female soccer players' imagery use. In contrast, various studies have shown that elite and nonelite performers can be distinguished by their imagery use (Barr & Hall, 1992; Hall et al., 1990; Mahoney, Gabriel, & Perkins, 1987; Moritz et al., 1996; Salmon et al., 1994). The higher the level, the more the athletes use imagery in practice and competition, the more structured and regular their imagery sessions, and the more they employ kinesthetic imagery. Considerably less attention has focused on whether individual athletes use imagery differently than team sport participants. In their extensive study with national-level athletes, Mahoney et al. (1987) found that participants in individual sports reported more frequent problems with anxiety and confidence and experienced different mental practice. Hall et al. (1998) attempted to determine whether individual and team sport athletes used the various imagery functions differently. They found that team sport athletes reported greater use of the motivational specificand general-mastery imagery. Given the limited research on whether type of sport influences imagery use, this issue formed the second purpose of the present study. We predicted that the type of sport would influence imagery use but made no additional specific predictions. Male and female athletes competing at a relatively high level (i.e., varsity) were examined since, as discussed, these athletes typically use imagery extensively in training and competition. Method Participants Participants were 350 varsity athletes from a Canadian university (111 females and 239 males). They participated in 10 different sports, including badminton (n = 13), basketball (n = 23), field hockey (n = 14), fencing (n = 8), football (n = 52), ice hockey (n = 26), rugby (n = 66), soccer (n = 42), volleyball (n = 37), and wrestling (n = 69). Participants' mean age was 20.43 + 1.79, and mean years of experience was 7.30 5 4.22. Measure The SIQ (Hall et al., 1998) was used to assess imagery use. This 30-item selfreport questionnaire has athletes rate on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = rarely and 7 = often) how often they employ five different types of imagery. These imagery subscales include cognitive general (CG; e.g., strategies of play), cognitive specific (CS; e.g., perfectly executed sport skills), motivation general-mastery (MG- M; staying focused and working through problems), motivation general-arousal (MG-A; the arousal, stress, and anxiety that may accompany performance), and motivation specific (MS; specific goals and outcomes). Research has shown that the SIQ has acceptable internal consistency estimates for the subscales, with alpha
Athletes' Use of Imagery 443 coefficients ranging from.70 to.88 (Hall et al., 1998). Furthermore, all items were found to load on their appropriate subscale (factor) above the criterion level (.40). In addition to completing the SIQ, participants supplied demographic data, including name, telephone number, sport, years of experience, age, and gender. Procedure Participants completed the SIQ two times: at the beginning (1-2 weeks prior to any league games or competitions; Time 1 [Tl]) and end of the regular season (1 week prior to play-offs or championships; Time 2 [T2]). Both times, the experimenter, with a coach's consent, contacted athletes before or immediately following a regularly scheduled practice. At TI, participants were told that the questionnaire was designed to assess whether they were incorporating imagery into their training and competition at that time. Participation was voluntary, and confidentiality was assured. We obtained consent before administering the questionnaire. Participants were asked to complete each questionnaire item as honestly as possible to avoid biasing results. Athletes completed the questionnaire in a group setting and returned them to the experimenter. The questionnaire required approximately 20 min for completion. At T2, participants were again reminded that the questionnaire was designed to assess the extent to which they were currently incorporating imagery into their training and competition. All other procedures were the same as those at TI. Prelimina y Analyses Results We only found a few minor differences between males and females for the SIQ subscales. Therefore, gender was not considered in subsequent analyses. Mean SIQ scores for each sport revealed that MG-M imagery was used most and MS least, but all types were used extensively (see Table 1). Analysis revealed adequate internal reliabilities for the SIQ subscales, with Cronbach's alpha coefficients ranging from.73 to 37, except for the MG-A subscale at TI, which was.68. Interscale correlations for the SIQ ranged from.28 to.73. A total of 362 questionnaires were distributed and 350 returned, giving a response rate of 97%. Table 1 Means and Standard Deviations for SIQ Subscales at Times 1 and 2 Subscale Time 1 Time 2 M SD M SD CS CG MS MG-A MG-M
444 Munroe, Hall, Simms, and Weinberg Prima y Analyses A split-plot ANOVA was conducted for each imagery subscale to assess the extent to which athletes in each sport were using imagery at the two times during a varsity season. Tukey tests were conducted to further analyze significant effects, with significance set at p c.05. Figure 1 shows mean SIQ scores for each sport at T1 and T2 for the CG imagery subscale. Analysis revealed a significant main effect for Sport, F(9,339) = 4.02, p c.001, andtime, F(l,339) = 25.94, p c.001. We also found a significant Sport by Time interaction, F(9,339) = 2.48, p c.001. Means for the CG subscale increased from TI to T2 for all sports, excluding badminton, which showed a nonsignificant decrease from T1 to T2. Of the nine sports in which CG imagery increased, seven (basketball, fencing, field hockey, football, rugby, soccer, and wrestling) were significant, and badminton, ice hockey, and volleyball changes were not. Figure 2 shows mean SIQ scores for each sport at T1 and T2 for the CS imagery subscale. Results showed a significant main effect for Sport, F(9,339) = 3.41, p c.001, and Time, F(l, 339) = 8.17, p c.005. We also found a significant Sport by Time interaction, F(9, 339) = 5.33, p c.001. Five sports (wrestling, soccer, rugby, field hockey, and fencing) showed a significant increase in CS imagery use from T1 to T2. Ice hockey and football also showed a trend in the same direction, but this was not significant. The only significant CS imagery decrease was for badminton, while basketball and volleyball CS scores changed in the same direction, but not significantly. txhntcn fendrig football Ngby LdleLball MetMl fiddhxky hxky smxx -ling spcrt Figure 1 -Mean Cognitive General (CG) imagery scores for T1 and T2.
Athletes' Use of Imagery 445 sport Figure 2 - Mean Cognitive Specific (CS) imagery scores for T1 and T2 Figure 3 shows mean SIQ scores for each sport at T1 and T2 for the MS imagery subscale. Analysis did not show a significant main effect for Sport but revealed one for Time, F(l, 339) = 14.30, p <.001. We also found a significant Sport by Time interaction, F(9, 339) = 3.16, p <.001. Seven sports (basketball, fencing, field hockey, ice hockey, rugby, soccer, volleyball, and wrestling) showed a significant increase in MS imagery use from T1 to T2, while football showed a nonsignificant trend in the same direction. The only sport that showed decreased MS imagery from T1 to T2 was badminton, and this decrease was not significant. Figure 4 shows mean SIQ scores for all sports at T1 and T2 for the MG-M imagery subscale. An ANOVA revealed a significant main effect for Sport, F(9, 339) = 4.32, p <.001, but not Time. Results also showed a significant Sport by Time interaction, F(9,339) = 6.91, p <.001. Rugby, soccer, and wrestling showed a significant increase from T1 to T2. Badminton, basketball, fencing, ice hockey, and volleyball each had a significant decrease from T1 to T2. Football and field hockey showed no significant change. Figure 5 shows mean SIQ scores for all sports at T1 and T2 for the MG-A imagery subscale. Analysis demonstrated a significant main effect for Sport, F(9, 339) = 3.88, p <.001, but not Time. We also found a significant Sport by Time interaction, F(9, 339) = 3.84, p <.001. Five sports (field hockey, rugby, soccer, volleyball, and wrestling) showed a significant increase in MG-A imagery from TI to T2. Football and badminton also showed an increase, but it was not significant. Fencing and ice hockey had a significant decrease in MG-Aimagery from T1 to T2. MG-A imagery for basketball also decreased but not significantly.
446 Munroe, Hall, Simms, and Weinberg w Figure 3 - Mean Motivational Specific (MS) imagery scores for T1 and T2. Figure 4 - Mean Motivational General-Mastery (MG-M) imagery scores for T1 and T2.
Athletes' Use of Imagery 447 Figure 5 - Mean Motivational General-Arousal (MG-A) imagery scores for TI and T2. Discussion The first purpose of the present study was to assess athletes' use of imagery during the competitive season. We predicted that athletes would use imagery early in the season for predominantly cognitive specific purposes and later on for motivational reasons. Results indicate that imagery is indeed used differentially across athletes' competitive seasons. For cognitive specific imagery, five sports showed a significant increase, which was not predicted since we believed that CS imagery would be used primarily to facilitate skill acquisition early in the season. One explanation for this increase could be that some athletes use CS imagery as a focusing technique, especially as the competitive season progresses. For instance, using CS imagery helps athletes stay focused on the current task, both in training and during competitions when distractions (e.g., the crowd or media) can become a problem (Bull et al., 1996). The most consistent results in the present study were for CG imagery. Athletes from all sports, except for badminton, reported increased CG imagery use later in the season. In varsity sports, strategies of play are usually developed over the course of the competitive season. Athletes need to rehearse these strategies as they are developed. Therefore, it is not surprising that CG imagery use increased. Most sports demonstrated a significant increase in MS imagery use during the competitive season. As measured by the SIQ, MS imagery primarily involves competitive goals (e.g., winning). As playoffs and championships draw near, such goals probably increase in importance, which would be reflected in athletes' imagery use. In contrast, MG-M and MG-A imagery use did not increase for most sports, as predicted. However, athletes reported using these two functions of imagery more than others at T1 and T2. One possible explanation is that MG-M and
448 Munroe, Hall, Simms, and Weinberg MG-A imagery can be equally important early and late in the competitive season (e.g., being mentally tough and coping with stress). While time of season does influence imagery use, other variables may also be significant. The second purpose of the present study was to determine if type of sport affects imagery use. We found that from early to later in the competitive season, athletes change imagery uses, but this depends on the sport. For example, all five imagery functions significantly increased from TI to T2 for soccer. In contrast, only CG and MS imagery significantly increased for basketball, whereas CS and MG-A imagery did not significantly change, and MG-M imagery significantly decreased. Hall et al. (1998) found differences in imagery use between team and individual sports. Team sport athletes reported a greater use of the MS and MG-M functions of imagery. Contrary to these findings, we found no clear systematic differences in imagery use between team and individual sport athletes. Sports can be classified in various ways (e.g., open vs. closed) other than team versus individual. The relationship between sport classifications and imagery use warrants further investigation. Other variables that may produce a change in athletes' imagery use during a competitive season include the team's perceived success and the type of imagery advocated by coaches. If a team believes that they are having an unsuccessful season, it may be quite difficult for athletes to imagine themselves winning and receiving a medal, which are forms of MS imagery. Continued poor performance may actually lead to decreased MS imagery use during the competitive season. How coaches direct their athletes to use imagery may also be an important consideration. In their study of figure skating coaches, Hall and Rodgers (1989) found that coaches rated imagery as the most useful mental training technique. Studies have shown that coaches not only recognize the importance of imagery but also advocate its use (Barr & Hall, 1992; Orlick & Partington, 1988). In a recent study, Barr and Hall (1992) found that 30% of rower participants reported that their coaches encouraged imagery use. Therefore, it is very likely that athletes change their imagery use over the course of the competitive season based on their coaches' directions. The present results have implications for the practitioner. Although the number of athletes assessed was relatively small for some sports, individuals in certain groups (e.g., badminton and fencing) did not use imagery as extensively as athletes in other sports (e.g., wrestling and rugby). Given the benefits of imagery use, athletes in the former group should be especially encouraged to increase imagery use. Many athletes use CG imagery more later in the season. Coaches and sport psychologists should emphasize CG imagery use earlier on to maximize its benefits. The value of using MG-M imagery to build confidence (Moritz et al., 1996) and MG-A imagery to control arousal and anxiety levels (Vadocz, et al., 1997) should be repeatedly stressed during a competitive season since some athletes often decrease their use of these types of imagery. Athletes can be expected to increase MS imagery use during the competitive season, which may require some management (i.e., decreased or enhanced), depending on the importance assigned to winning. In general, athletes usually change their use of imagery, and coaches and sport psychologists should react to (and, if appropriate, direct) these changes (e.g., periodical use of the five imagery functions) to maximize the benefits of using imagery.
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