Motivation and Emotion Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion I. What is Motivation II. III. How Does Motivation Affect Behavior? What is Emotion? IV. How Does Emotion Affect Behavior? What is Motivation? A condition that initiates, activates, or maintains an organism s goal-directed behavior. Usually an internal condition Can not be directly observed Inferred from external behaviors 1
Theories of Motivation Evolutionary Behavior is motivated by instincts Fixed behavioral patterns Occur throughout a species Inborn, rather than learned Humans have more instincts than other animals Evolutionary Theories Motivation and emotion are inseparable Motivation pushes us towards a number of behaviors (goals) Emotion sets priorities for behaviors Behaviors that result in pleasure or pain will be motivating Feelings relate to survival Evolutionary psychologists focus on universal motivations and emotions Drive Theory Assumes an organism is motivated to act because of a need to attain, maintain, or reestablish a goal A drive is an internal aroused condition Directs an organism to satisfy a need A state of physiological imbalance» Usually accompanied by arousal An organism motivated by a need is in a drive state 2
Drive Theory The ultimate goal is homeostasis Maintenance of a constant state of internal balance (equilibrium) Behaviors that reduce biological needs are reinforced Behaviors that reduce drives are especially likely to recur The goal that satisfies a need is an incentive Can pull us toward some behaviors and away from others Drive Theory When drives motivate two or more competing behaviors, conflict results Three types (Miller, 1944, 1959) a. Approach Approach Conflict Distress is usually tolerable because both choices are pleasant Drive Theory b. Avoidance Avoidance Conflict c. Approach Avoidance Conflict Occurs when a choice has both pleasant and unpleasant aspects simultaneously 3
Arousal Theory Focuses on the connection between physical arousal and behavior. Yerkes Dodson Principle Suggests that task performance is related to arousal level Hebb suggested that there is optimal arousal level Cognitive Theories of Motivation Focus on our goals and mental processes Expectancy Theories Focuses on our expectations of achieving a goal an on the value of that goal Expectations are based on experience Some are based on social needs» A need to feel good about oneself and to establish and maintain relationships» E.g., needs for achievement and affiliation Cognitive Theories Extrinsic Motivation: Comes from the external environment in the form of rewards and threats of punishment Intrinsic Motivation: Arises from our internal processes 4
Humanistic Theory Emphasizes the entirety of life, rather than individual components of behavior Focuses on human dignity, individual choice, and self-worth Incorporates elements of other theories Believes behavior must be viewed within the framework of a person s environment and values Humanistic Theory Abraham Maslow (1908 1970) Assumed people are essentially good Believed people are naturally motivated toward self-actualization One of the highest level of psychological development Involves striving to achieve everything one is capable of Maslow s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow organized a hierarchy of motives As lower-level needs are satisfied, higher-level needs become more motivating Believed only a small portion of people attain self-actualization Problems with Maslow s theory Too global to be tested experimentally Strongly tied to Western values 5
II. How Does Motivation Affect Behavior? Hunger: A Physiological Need Hunger is influenced by physiology, learning and culture The Physiological Determinants of Hunger Focused on homeostasis A balance of energy intake and output that results in a stable weight The Physiological Determinants of Hunger Weight stability is consistent with the idea of a set point A predetermined weight that the body maintains Several possible mechanisms (fat cells, hormones) 6
The Physiological Determinants of Hunger The hypothalamus is important in processing signals from these hormones Surgery alters eating patterns Damage to the ventromedial hypothalamus leads to extreme overeating Damage to the lateral hypothalamus leads to extreme undereating Environmental and Cultural Influences on Hunger Hunger is often not a factor in eating People eat tasty food, even if not hungry People who are full will also sometimes eat if a different food is presented Suggests variety is a factor in eating Is the variety of food available in the United States a factor in overeating? Eating and Obesity Four factors that contribute to overeating Food is readily available Portion sizes are increasing The average diet is higher in fat Most children and adults do not engage in regular exercise 7
Eating and Obesity Dieting is more common than being overweight Women are especially susceptible to the thin ideal However, eating disorders are increasing for men Dieting is usually unsuccessful and often unhealthy Brain of People with Eating Disorders Sexual Behavior Sex Hormones Hormones are important Both males and females produce androgens ( male hormones) and estrogens ( female hormones) In males, the testes are the principle producers of androgens In females, the ovaries are the principle producers of estrogens Release of these hormones triggers secondary sex characteristics at puberty 8
Sexual Dysfunctions Refers to impairment either in The desire for sexual gratification The ability to achieve it The human sexual response has four phases: Desire phase Excitement phase Orgasm Resolution Sexual Response Cycle Masters and Johnson (1970) Sexual Response Cycle Desire: Fantasies and desires about sexual activity. Excitement: Sexual pleasure and accompanying physiological changes. Heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration increase Vasocongestion is characteristic Engorgement of blood vessels in the genital area Plateau Phase: Physical arousal continues to increase as the body prepares for orgasm 9
Sexual Response Cycle Orgasm: Peaking of sexual pleasure, with the release of sexual tension and rhythmic contraction of muscles and organs. Resolution or Refractory Period: Muscular Relaxation and general well-being. Body returns to its normal, resting state. Takes one to several minutes. Time varies considerably from person to person. Men are usually unable to achieve an erection Dysfunctions of Sexual Desire Hypoactive sexual desire disorder : a person shows little or no sex drive or interest Sexual aversion disorder : Person shows extreme aversion to, and avoidance of, all genital sexual contact with a partner Sexual desire disorder appears to be the most common female sexual dysfunction Sexual Dysfunctions Characterized by a disturbance in the processes that characterize the sexual response cycle or by pain associated with sexual intercourse 10
Dysfunctions of Sexual Arousal Male erectile disorder Effects half the male population on at least a temporary basis May be based on Anxiety about sexual performance Physiological dysfunction Female sexual arousal disorder is in many ways the female counterpart of erectile disorder Orgasmic Disorders Premature ejaculation: persistent and recurrent onset of ejaculation with minimal sexual stimulation Male orgasmic disorder: persistent inability to ejaculate during intercourse Female orgasmic disorder: Persistent or recurrent delay in or absence of orgasm following a normal sexual excitement phase Dysfunctions Involving Sexual Pain Vaginismus: An involuntary spasm of the muscles at the entrance of the vagina (not due to physical disorder) that prevents penetration and sexual intercourse Painful coitus, or dyspareunia, can occur in men but is far more common in women 11
Sexual Desire Disorders Deficiency or absence of sexual fantasies and desire for sexual activity The disturbance must cause marked distress or interpersonal difficulty Not due to a general medical condition Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder Sexual Aversion Disorder Sexual Arousal Disorders Persistent or reoccurring inability to attain or maintain sexual activity. Female Sexual Arousal Disorder Male Erectile Disorder Orgasmic Disorder Persistent or recurrent delay in, or absence of, orgasm following normal sexual excitement phase. Female Orgasmic Disorder Male Orgasmic Disorder Premature Ejaculation 12
Sexual Pain Disorder Pain during sexual intercourse. Dyspareunia (not due to a General Medical Condition) Vaginismus (not due to a General Medical Condition) Sexual Dysfunction NOS NOS: Not Otherwise Specified This category includes sexual dysfunctions that do not meet criteria for any specific Sexual Dysfunction Sexual and Gender Variants: The Paraphilias The paraphilias are a group of persistent sexual behavior patterns in which unusual objects, rituals, or situations are required to fulfill sexual satisfaction 13
Fetishism Transvestic fetishism Voyeurism Exhibitionism Sadism Masochism The Paraphilias The Paraphilias Mostly male Have more than one paraphilia Usually do not seek treatment Sexual Dysfunction NOS Paraphilias Exhibitionism Fetishism Frotteurism Pedophilia Sexual Masochism Sexual Sadism Transvestic Fetishism Voyeurism Paraphilia NOS 14
Therapy for Sexual Disorders Senate Focus: Masters and Johnson (1970) Technique used with couples to focus on their sensory experience during sexual activity. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: Combines behavioral exercises (those suggested by Masters and Johnson,1970) with therapy techniques that emphasize thought patterns or cognitive factors Cognitive Restructuring: The therapist tries to change people s inappropriate negative thoughts about some aspect of sexuality. Gender Identity Disorders Two components must be present: Evidence of a strong and persistent cross-gender identification, (not merely a desire for any perceived cultural advantages of being the other sex). Persistent discomfort about one s assigned sex and sense of inappropriate in the gender role of that sex Significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning Gender Identity Disorder NOS Sexual Disorder NOS Gender Identity Disorders Characterized by two components: Cross-gender identification Gender dysphoria persistent discomfort about one s biological sex or the sense that the gender role of that sex is inappropriate 15
Sexual Orientation Kinsey acknowledged a continuum of sexual orientations Exclusively homosexual Mostly homosexual Mostly heterosexual Exclusively heterosexual Can not define sexual orientation solely by behavior Same-sex sexual experience does not make someone homosexual A person may be homosexual or bisexual without ever having a same-sex sexual experience Sexual Orientation Kinsey reported that 37% of men had had at least one same-sex sexual experience Only 10% were primarily homosexual Other researchers find different estimates 2.8% of men and 1.4% of women identify as primarily homosexual Non-heterosexuals experience discrimination in some cultures, but not others In the U.S., such discrimination and violence lead to other problems (suicide) Social Needs The Need for Achievement and Mastery Directs a person to strive for excellence and success 16
Measuring Achievement Motivation Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Analyze the thought content of imaginative stories Four questions: 1. What is happening? 2. What has led up to this situation? 3. What are those in this situation thinking? 4. What will happen next? Stories that stress success, getting ahead, and competition indicate need for achievement TAT The TAT The TAT has been criticized for being too subjective Other alternatives exist Practice improves performance for those high in need for achievement May reflect Constant striving for improvement Belief in the importance of effort 17
The Need for Achievement Those high in need for achievement also tend to be high in self-efficacy The belief one can successfully perform a behavior Specific to a particular task (Academic self-efficacy) Best predictor of college GPA The Need for Affiliation & Belonging Our need to establish & maintain positive relationships with others Some people affiliate when feeling anxious or stressed Social support is an effective coping strategy III. What is Emotion? Feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that influence behavior 18
The Functions of Emotions Preparing us for action Shaping our future behavior Helping us interact more effectively with others 55 Identifying Emotions Cross-cultural consistency in interpretations of facial expressions However, emotional expression is not the same as emotional experience There are cultural differences in emotional interpretation and expression Most researchers suggest that basic emotions include: Happiness Anger Fear Sadness Disgust Facial Feedback Theory Suggests that sensations from the face help us determine what emotions we are experiencing. 19
Theories of Emotion Physiological Theories: Physical changes that accompany emotions James Lange Theory: Proposes that we experience emotions as a result of physiological changes that produce specific sensations; and the brain interprets these sensations as specific kinds of emotional experiences My heart is racing, I must be scared! Cannon-Bard Theory Assumes that both physiological arousal and the emotional experience are produced simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus, which emanates from the thalamus in the brain James-Lange and Cannon-Bard Theories 60 Figure 2 of Module 26 20
The Roots of Emotions The Schachter-Singer Theory Emphasizes that we identify the emotion we are experiencing by observing our environment and comparing ourselves with others Supports a cognitive view of emotions 61 Evolutionary Theories Emphasizes the role of a series of modules that are activated by specific situations Humans seem programmed to fear some things more than others Heights, snakes, insects All may be dangerous, so fear responses are adaptive Less adaptive in today s safer world IV. How Does Emotion Affect Behavior? Culture and Emotion Most emotions are expressed in most cultures Expressions vary in degree and especially the circumstances under which they occur Greatest cultural differences come from evaluations of the events that provoke emotions 21
Gender & Emotion In Western society, it is widely believed that women are more emotional than men Ignores some emotions (men and anger) Shaped by stereotypes We remember stereotype-consistent examples We ignore stereotype inconsistencies as exceptions We interpret ambiguous situations in terms of stereotypes Gender & Emotion Men are more angry than women Stereotype focuses on expression, not experience, of anger Research shows few gender differences in feelings of anger Behavioral expressions do differ Physiological reactions are similar Gender and Emotion Different display rules In most cultures, men display emotions related to power (anger) Women display emotions related to powerlessness (sadness, fear) 22