The effects of academic stress and optimism on subjective well-being among first-year undergraduates

Diversity in Unity: Perspectives from Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Ariyanto et al. (Eds) 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-62665-2 The effects of academic stress and optimism on subjective well-being among first-year undergraduates M. Yovita & S.R. Asih Faculty of Psychology, Universitas Indonesia, Depok, Indonesia ABSTRACT: First-Year college students face various challenges as they enter a new environment. They are prone to academic stress, in which students perceive that the academicrelated pressure exceeds their coping ability. Studies have found that academic stress can affect subjective well-being. One way found to reduce the influence of academic stress on subjective well-being was a high level of optimism. This study examined the effect of academic stress on subjective well-being with optimism as the moderator, among the first-year undergraduates. The subjective well-being, consisting of two components, was assessed using the Satisfaction With Life Scale for the cognitive appraisal and the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule for the affective appraisal. Academic stress and optimism were assessed using the Student-Life Stress Inventory and the Life Orientation Test-Revised respectively. The overall model significantly predicted subjective well-being (F(3, 211) = 47.653, p < 0.05, adjusted R 2 = 0.245). Academic stress significantly decreased subjective well-being (β = 0.383, t(213) = 6.302, p < 0.05). Optimism significantly increased the subjective wellbeing (β = 0.257, t(213) = 4.225, p < 0.05). Optimism did not significantly moderate the effect of academic stress on subjective well-being (t(211) = 0.491, p > 0.05). In sum, academic stress and optimism affected the subjective well-being of first-year undergraduates. The findings are useful in enhancing the orientation material for new students. 1 INTRODUCTION Starting college is an exciting experience for first-year undergraduates. It is the time when students are treated like adults. They are given the freedom to manage their own academic agenda, including the courses and the numbers of courses taken for a semester. Although students are given many choices, they are required to adapt to campus life, in which they need to be responsible in their own personal as well as academic life. These life-change experiences undergone by first-year undergraduates are likely to lead to academic stress (Fisher, 1994; Gall et al., 2000). This is because the first year of college is a transition period from a much-controlled environment, which is high school, to a less-controlled environment, namely college. Academic stress can be defined as a state when students perceive academic-related pressure as exceeding their ability to cope, causing psychological and/or biological changes (Cohen et al., 1998). Higher academic stress is also associated with less healthy lifestyle, including an increase in smoking and less consumption of healthy food (Hudd et al., 2000). Further, another impact of academic stress is a decline in Subjective Well-Being (SWB). SWB refers to an evaluation of life satisfaction, consisting of cognitive as well as affective evaluations (Diener et al., 1999). Cognitive evaluation is an appraisal of how satisfying one s life is. Further, affective evaluation is an appraisal of a person s positive as well as negative affect. As students experience more academic stress, they would evaluate their SWB as being less satisfying (Denovan & Macaskill, 2016; Heizomi et al., 2015; Schiffrin & Nelson, 2010). A low SWB is associated with various negative impacts. As such, students with low SWB are more likely to report being depressed and demonstrate maladaptive social relationships (Park, 2004). Even more, a low level of SWB is more likely to give rise to mental disorders 559

in students (Heizomi et al., 2015). On the contrary, a higher level of SWB is more likely to increase the students academic achievement (Manzoor et al., 2014). Thus, it is imperative for students to maintain their SWB at an adequate level. One way to achieve an adequate level of SWB is by being optimistic. Optimism can be defined as a general tendency to believe that someone would experience favourable outcomes (Carver & Scheier, 2001). As such, an individual would be able to be strong in times of adversity. Studies have found that an individual with a high level of optimism also has a high level of SWB (Cha, 2003; Santhosh & Appu, 2015). As such, a person with a high level of optimism believes that he or she would get favourable outcomes and would act to achieve those favourable outcomes. Related to college students, it was found that optimism is a strong predictor for achieving favourable outcomes (Cha, 2003). Further, the same study found that optimism is also a predictor of students positive affect, in which positive affect is a part of SWB. A recent study found that students with a higher level of optimism reported less psychological problems and a higher level of SWB (Santhosh & Appu, 2015). It could be said that optimism might be a way to lessen the effect of academic stress on SWB. Based on the explanation above, this study aimed to examine whether optimism could moderate the impact of academic stress on SWB in first-year undergraduates. For the first hypothesis (H1), it was hypothesised that a higher level of academic stress would lessen the SWB. The second hypothesis (H2) was that optimism would increase the students SWB. Lastly, it was hypothesised (H3) that optimism would lessen the effect of academic stress on SWB. 2 METHODS 2.1 Participants This study had 215 participants, recruited from a public university on the outskirts of Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia. Initially, there were 222 students recruited for the study. Seven of them were excluded for various reasons, including not giving consent to participate in the study, or that it was not their first time attending college. The final 215 participants consisted of 65 male students and 150 female students with a mean age of 18.56 (SD = 0.683). All participants were recruited by convenience sampling through social media and instant messaging. 2.2 Procedures and measurements This study was a cross-sectional one, in which participants were assessed only once. The data collection was conducted from 28 May until 29 May 2016 through cognitoforms.com. Participants were asked to complete a set of online questionnaires which consisted of four instruments. Those instruments measured academic stress, optimism, affective evaluation of SWB, and cognitive evaluation of SWB. The affective evaluation of SWB was assessed with the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) (Watson et al., 1988). The PANAS consisted of 20 items, in which ten items were about positive affect and ten items about negative affect. The positive affect items included happy and proud. The negative affect items included disappointed, depressed. This measurement used a 5-point Likert scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree. There were two total scores, one for positive affect and one for negative affect. The balance score, which was the final score, was gained by subtracting the total score of negative affect from the total score of positive affect. The possible range of affect balance score was from 40 to 40. The affect balance score shows the dominant affect of each participant. Positive score denoted positive affect and vice versa. This measurement was translated into Bahasa (Indonesian language) by Herwibowo (2014) and used for the student population in University of Indonesia. The coefficient alpha of PANAS was 0.760 for positive affect measurement and 0.826 for 560

negative affect measurement. Based on the correlations between item scores and total scores, all coefficient correlations were above 0.2. The cognitive evaluation of SWB was measured using the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) (Diener et al., 1985). It consisted of five items with a five-point Likert scale, ranging from Strongly disagree to Strongly agree. The possible range of total score was from 5 to 25, which showed how satisfied the participants were with their life. A higher score meant more satisfied, and vice versa. One item of the SWLS was The condition of my life is excellent. This measurement had been translated to Bahasa (Indonesian language) by Herwibowo (2014) and used for the student population in University of Indonesia. The coefficient alpha of SWLS was 0.793. Based on the correlations between item scores and total scores, all coefficient correlations were above 0.2. The academic stress was measured using the Student-Life Stress Inventory (SSI) (Gadzella, 1994). It consisted of 51 items grouped under two dimensions, which were stressor and reaction. This measure used a five-point Likert scale assessing the frequency of the symptoms (Never; Seldom; Occasionally; Often; Most of the time). The possible range of total score was from 51 to 255. A higher score denoted more stress with academic life. This measurement had been translated to Indonesian language by Sarina (2012) and used for the student population in University of Indonesia. The coefficient alpha of SSI was 0.906. Based on the correlations between item scores and total scores, all coefficient correlations were above 0.2. Optimism was measured by Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R) (Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994). It consisted of ten items with a five-point Likert scale, from Strongly disagree to Strongly agree. Four of the ten items were fillers, which were excluded from the total score of optimism. Thus, the possible range of total score was from 6 to 30. A higher score meant more optimistic, and vice versa. One item of LOT-R was In uncertain times, I usually expect the best. This measurement had been translated to Indonesian language by Isma (2013) and used for the student population in University of Indonesia. The coefficient alpha of LOT-R was 0.630. Based on the correlations between item scores and total scores, all coefficient correlations were between 0.29 and 0.43. After data collection, the participants were checked for compatibility, and those who were found not compatible were eliminated. The statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 21. Data was analysed descriptively to see the general description of participants and variables. Multiple regression analysis was performed to assess the effect of academic stress on SWB, the effect of optimism on SWB, and the effect of academic stress and optimism interaction on SWB. 3 RESULTS The descriptive data for all variables is presented in Table 1. The mean per item was used to see the general description of SWB and academic stress subscales because each subscale did not have the same number of items. The mean per item was determined by dividing the mean total by each number of items. Hypothesis testing for the first hypothesis showed that academic stress had a significant negative effect on SWB (β = 0.383, t(213) = 6.302, p < 0.05). It meant that the first hypothesis (H1) was accepted. Higher academic stress lessened the level of SWB. Hypothesis testing for the second hypothesis showed that optimism had a significant positive effect on SWB (β = 0.257, t(213) = 4.225, p < 0.05). It meant that H2 was accepted. Higher level of optimism would increase the level of SWB. The result of hypothesis testing for the third hypothesis (H3) showed that the adjusted R 2 = 0.245, referring to 24.5% variance of SWB, could be explained by academic stress, optimism, and their interaction. However, there was no significant interaction effect of academic stress and optimism on SWB (β = 0.237, t(211) = 0.491, p > 0.05). It meant H3 was rejected. There was no significant interaction between academic stress and optimism affecting the level of SWB. Optimism did not moderate the effect of academic stress on SWB. 561

Table 1. Descriptive data for all scales and subscales. Variables N M M per item SD Range Subjective well-being 215 0.0265 1.616 4 4 Positive affect 215 35.740 3.574 5.210 10 50 Negative affect 215 29.510 2.951 6.791 10 50 Satisfaction with life 215 15.400 3.080 3.164 5 25 Academic stress 215 135.41 20.36 51 255 Frustration stressor 215 19.228 2.745 3.794 7 35 Conflict stressor 215 9.177 3.059 2.059 3 15 Pressure stressor 215 13.474 3.369 2.736 4 20 Change stressor 215 8.405 2.802 2.380 3 15 Self-imposed stressor 215 22.284 3.714 3.025 6 30 Physiological reaction 215 29.130 2.081 7.323 14 70 Emotional reaction 215 12.149 3.037 3.326 4 20 Behavioural reaction 215 16.721 2.900 4.328 8 40 Cognitive reaction 215 4.847 2.423 1.600 2 10 Optimism 215 20.006 2.976 6 30 4 DISCUSSION Based on the results, this study supported two out of the three hypotheses. It was found that there was a significant effect of academic stress on SWB. Higher academic stress decreased the level of SWB among the first-year undergraduates. Thus, the first hypothesis (H1) was supported. This result is in accordance with the theory of SWB by Diener (1984). Diener (1984) postulated that SWB is influenced by experience, both favourable and unfavourable. Academic stress could be perceived as an unfavourable experience due to its negative impact, such as being angry or getting sick. One of the most common academic stress reactions experienced by students was emotional reaction. Students reported being anxious, fearful, feeling guilty, and sad. These negative reactions decreased the first-year students SWB. Furthermore, the results are also in accordance with previous studies in other parts of the world (Schiffrin & Nelson, 2010; Heizomi et al., 2015). The second hypothesis (H2) was supported as it was found that optimism significantly increased SWB. This finding is in accordance with previous studies in South Korea and India (Cha, 2003; Santhosh & Appu, 2015). Students who scored highly on the optimism measure believed that they would get favourable outcomes in the future, despite any adversity. This belief positively influenced their SWB. The findings support the theory of SWB in which trait is one factor influencing social well-being (Aspinwall & Taylor, 1992; Ayyash-Abdo & Alamuddin, 2007). It was found that there was no significant interaction between academic stress and optimism on SWB among first-year undergraduates. Therefore, the third hypothesis (H3) was not supported; optimism did not moderate the relationship between academic stress and SWB. This finding might be explained by the fact that assessment was performed during final exams. Students were very stressed during that period. Furthermore, the study was conducted in a reputable and highly competitive college. Most of the participants also reported having high levels of optimism. A more diverse sample is needed to increase the representativeness of first-year undergraduates. REFERENCES Aspinwall, L.G. & Taylor, S.E. (1992). Modeling cognitive adaptation: A longitudinal investigation of the impact of individual differences and coping on college adjustment and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(6), 989 1003. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.6.989 562

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