CELLULAR RESPIRATION: AEROBIC HARVESTING OF CELLULAR ENERGY 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Introduction In chemo heterotrophs, eukaryotes perform cellular respiration That harvests energy from food which yields large amounts of ATP, that allows for cellular work. 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration-the circle of life s energy! To reduce entropy and perform work, life requires energy. In almost all ecosystems, energy ultimately comes from the sun, which is why we studied photosynthesis first! Key to remember glucose and oxygen are produced, so that s what we have to work with! 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ultimately, Cells tap energy from electrons falling from organic fuels to oxygen The energy necessary for life is contained in the arrangement of electrons in chemical bonds in organic molecules. An important question is how do cells extract this energy? Where Have we Seen something Like this Before??!! 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Final metabolic pathway is the Electron Transport Chain We can harvest electrons from atoms to control the proton energy that follows them around. Have to be VERY careful to control these ions or acids can build up! We can do this with a semi-permeable membrane, enzymes to control (transport) the electrons and resulting protons Final, stable electron and proton acceptors.
Figure 6.5C NADH NAD H 2 ATP Controlled release of energy for synthesis of ATP 2 2 H 1 O 2 2 H 2 O
Semi-permeable membrane-crista Enzymes-to control (transport) the electrons and resulting protons mobile enzymes: Cytochrome Q and Cytochrome C Non-mobile enzymes; NADH Reductase, Ubiquinone, (Collectively called complexes ) and then ATP Synthase used to place electrons on their final acceptor in a process called chemiosmosis.
Ultimately, Cells tap energy from electrons falling from organic fuels to oxygen When the carbon-hydrogen bonds of organic compounds are broken, electrons are created and then transferred to a final electron/proton acceptor. An electron loses potential energy when it falls to oxygen. What will use all this harvested electron/proton energy as it falls to create? Think about what you know and come up with a substance who can donate Hydrogen? Think about what you know and come up with a substance who can accept Hydrogen?
How is this done? By shuttling the electrons and protons found in hydrogen! Cellular respiration is the changes in hydrogen atom distribution. Glucose loses its hydrogen atoms and becomes oxidized to CO 2. Oxygen gains hydrogen atoms and becomes reduced to H 2 O. 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
STAGES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview: Cellular respiration occurs in four main stages Cellular respiration consists of a sequence of steps that can be divided into three stages. Stage 1 Glycolysis-Cytosol Stage 2 Pyruvate processing-bridge between cytosol and mitochondrion Stage 3- Citric acid cycle-mitochondrion Stage 4 Oxidative phosphorylation with chemiosmosis- Cristae 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cellular respiration Stage 1: Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and is anaerobic, it begins cellular respiration, and breaks down glucose into two molecules of a threecarbon compound called pyruvate/pyruvic acid Goal, break sugar to collect hydrogens Net versus Gross ATP gains C6H12O6+ 4 ADP +4 Pi + 2 ATP + 2 NAD 2 C3H5O3+ 4ATP+ 2 NADH+ 2 ADP + 2 Pi
Pyruvate/Pyruvic Acid has lots more bond energy that can be extracted! We need to stabilize the citric acid and make it permeable to the ou mitochondrial membrane. This second stage of cell respiration is a bridge reaction because Nothing is produced, but we get the task done!
The first substance encountered in the mitochondria by The acetyl-coa is oxaloacetate. Together they form a stable 6 carbon compound called citrate/citric acid Hence the next main stage of cell respiration is called The Citric acid cycle. Stage 2: The citric acid cycle takes place in mitochondria, breaks pyruvate to carbon dioxide, and supply the next stage with electrons (NAD/FAD) recycle pyruvic acid/pyruvate stabilizer (Co-A) regenerate Acetyl CoA acceptor-oxaloacetate Goal is to collect hydrogens, make some ATP (substrate) and release waste
Fourth and final stage of Cellular respiration Stage 3: Oxidative phosphorylation involves electrons carried by NADH and FADH 2, They shuttle H e- to the electron transport chain embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane, (cristae) involves chemiosmosis which is passing H e- and H+ through ATP synthase (chemiosmosis) together, they generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
Figure 6.10_1 H H H H Protein complex of electron carriers I H Mobile electron carriers III H H IV H H ATP synthase II Electron FADH 2 FAD flow NADH NAD 2 H 1 2 O 2 H 2 O H ADP P ATP H Electron Transport Chain Chemiosmosis Oxidative Phosphorylation
Most ATP production occurs by oxidative phosphorylation Oxidative phosphorylation involves electron transport and chemiosmosis and requires an adequate supply of oxygen. Electrons from NADH and FADH 2 travel down the electron transport chain to from one enzyme to another using mobile enzymes to assist in the electron moving properly. Finally, in chemiosmosis, ATP synthase channels the H e- and following H+ to O 2 waiting in the matrix. 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 6.12 CYTOPLASM Electron shuttles across membrane 2 NADH 2 2 NADH or FADH 2 Mitochondrion 2 6 NADH NADH 2 FADH 2 Glycolysis 2 Glucose Pyruvate Pyruvate Oxidation 2 Acetyl CoA Citric Acid Cycle Oxidative Phosphorylation (electron transport and chemiosmosis) Maximum per glucose: 2 ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation 2 ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation about 28 ATP About 32 ATP by oxidative phosphorylation
ALL ROADS!
CONNECTION: Interrupting cellular respiration can have both harmful and beneficial effects Three categories of cellular poisons obstruct the process of oxidative phosphorylation. These poisons 1. block the electron transport chain (for example, rotenone, cyanide, and carbon monoxide), 2. inhibit ATP synthase (for example, the antibiotic oligomycin), or 3. make the membrane leaky to hydrogen ions (called uncouplers, examples include dinitrophenol).
Figure 6.11 Rotenone H H H H Cyanide, carbon monoxide H H H Oligomycin ATP synthase DNP FADH 2 FAD NADH NAD 2 1 O 2 2 H H H 2 O ADP P ATP
But once we are past glycolysis, what is the major reactant needed to complete the remaining steps of cellular respiration? HINT:
FERMENTATION: ANAEROBIC HARVESTING OF ENERGY 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Fermentation enables cells to produce ATP without oxygen Fermentation is a way of harvesting chemical energy that does not require oxygen. Fermentation takes advantage of glycolysis, produces two ATP molecules per glucose, and reduces NAD + to NADH. The trick of fermentation is to provide an anaerobic path for recycling NADH back to NAD +. Then, since we can t effectively catabolize pyruvates, the animal cell does what it can and produces Lactic acid and CO2. Fully anaerobic creatures like fungi, convert glucose to ethanol and CO2
Fermentation enables cells to produce ATP without oxygen Lactate is carried by the blood to the liver, where it is converted back to pyruvate and oxidized in the mitochondria of liver cells. The dairy industry uses lactic acid fermentation by bacteria to make cheese and yogurt. Other types of microbial fermentation turn soybeans into soy sauce and cabbage into sauerkraut.
Glycolysis Figure 6.13B Glucose 2 ADP 2 P 2 NAD 2 ATP 2 NADH 2 Pyruvate 2 NADH 2 CO 2 2 NAD 2 Ethanol
Fermentation enables cells to produce ATP without oxygen Obligate anaerobes-archae bacteria are poisoned by oxygen, requiring anaerobic conditions, and live in stagnant ponds and deep soils. Facultative anaerobes include yeasts and many bacteria, and can make ATP by fermentation
6.14 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Glycolysis evolved early in the history of life on Earth Glycolysis is the universal energy-harvesting process of life. The role of glycolysis in fermentation and respiration dates back to life long before oxygen was present, when only prokaryotes inhabited the Earth, about 3.5 billion years ago. 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.