Table of Contents About the Authors... xii Acknowledgments... xiv CHAPTER 1: ANIMAL ECOLOGY AND FORAGING BEHAVIOR... 1 Introduction... 1 The Ecological Context... 1 Herbivore Adaptation and Foraging Habits... 2 Plant Characteristics that Influence Selection and Intake... 4 Physical Signals... 4 Chemical Signals... 5 Origins of Diet Selection... 7 Nature Versus Nurture... 7 Palatability, Preference, and Postingestive Consequences... 8 Feedback Mechanisms and Behavior... 9 Conditioned Taste Responses... 10 Dietary Social Facilitation and the Influence of Mom... 10 Familiar Versus Unfamiliar Foods and Foraging Locations... 11 Management Implications... 11 Never Keep Animals Guessing... 11 Never Work Animals Too Hard... 13 Always Provide Water... 14 Maintain Soil Fertility... 14 Summary... 14 CHAPTER 2: BASIC ANIMAL NUTRITION... 15 Introduction to Ruminant Digestion... 15 Nutritional Requirements... 16 Energy... 16 Caloric Density and Rate and Extent of Digestion... 18 Bottom Line... 19 Protein... 19 Crude Protein Determination... 19 Protein from Forages and Browse... 19 Protein Supplementation... 21 Ruminant Protein Utilization... 22 Minerals... 23 Calcium... 23 Phosphorus... 23 Potassium, Sodium, and Chloride... 24 iii
CHAPTER 2: BASIC ANIMAL NUTRITION (continued) Magnesium... 24 Sulfur... 25 Microminerals... 25 Vitamins... 25 Fat-Soluble Vitamins... 26 Water-Soluble Vitamins... 26 Water... 26 Drinking Water... 26 Water Contained in Forages and Feeds... 27 Water from Nutrient Metabolism... 27 Forage Intake... 27 Environmental Effects on Livestock Influencing Intake... 28 Environmental Effects on Plants Influencing Intake... 28 Changes in Nutrient Needs Over the Production Cycle... 28 Animal Class... 28 Influence of Animal Physiological State on Requirements... 28 Seasonality of Herbage Production... 29 Grasses... 29 Legumes... 29 Nontraditional Plants... 29 Ration Balancing... 29 Ration Balancing Process... 30 Nutritional Goals and Sources of Information... 30 Requirements... 31 Feed Composition Values... 32 Feed Formulas and Conversions... 32 Simple Balancing... 32 Trial and Error... 32 Pearson s Square... 34 Algebraic Method... 34 Modified Pearson s Square... 34 Modified Algebraic Equations... 35 Simultaneous Equations... 35 Algebraic Method for Formulating a Grain/Mineral/Vitamin Mix... 36 Micro-Math... 37 Pasture Allowance Example... 37 Summary... 42 CHAPTER 3: BEEF NUTRITION AND MANAGEMENT... 43 Nutrition Requirements of the Herd... 43 Cows... 43 First-Calf Heifers... 44 iv
Yearlings... 45 Stockers... 45 Replacement Heifers... 47 Body Condition Score... 47 Scoring... 47 Influence of Body Condition on Reproduction... 47 Impact of BCS at Calving... 49 BCS Changes from Calving to Breeding... 51 Summary... 51 Dietary Energy and Changes in BCS... 52 Cattle Type and Management... 53 Breed and Cattle Type to Optimize Grazing... 53 Market... 54 Genetics... 54 Forage Intake... 54 Animal Maintenance... 55 Buying Yearling Bulls Using EPDs... 58 Nutritional Diseases of Grazing Cattle... 60 Bloat... 60 Grass Tetany... 60 Hardware Disease... 61 White Muscle Disease... 61 Foot Rot... 61 Johne s Disease... 62 Neospora spp.... 63 Problems Related to the Ingestion of Legumes... 63 Problems Related to the Ingestion of Grasses... 64 Pasture Management Strategies to Optimize Production for Cow/Calf and Yearling Cattle... 65 Forage Quality and Availability... 65 Grazing Systems... 67 Fixed or Rigid Paddock Rotational Grazing... 68 Flexible Paddock Rotational Grazing... 68 Buffer Grazing... 68 Forward Grazing... 68 Creep Grazing... 69 Combination Systems... 69 Supplementation of Calves and Yearlings... 69 Production Goals... 69 Growth Rate Targets... 70 Nutritional Requirements... 72 Mineral Supplementation... 73 Creep Feeding... 74 Delivery Systems... 75 v
CHAPTER 3: BEEF NUTRITION AND MANAGEMENT (continued) Winter Feeding Strategies for Cows and Yearling Cattle... 76 Hay... 76 Corn Silage... 78 Extended Grazing... 79 CHAPTER 4: DAIRY NUTRITION AND MANAGEMENT... 81 Nutrition Basics for Dairy Cattle... 81 Carbohydrates... 81 Energy... 83 Protein... 84 Dry Matter Intake... 85 Lactation Cycle of a Dairy Cow... 87 Quality of Intensively Managed Pastures... 87 Forage Testing... 89 Energy/Protein Relationships... 89 Nutrient Imbalances/Deficiencies in Pasture... 89 Pasture as the Only Forage and DMI... 90 Correcting Nutritional Limitations/Imbalances of Pasture... 92 Energy... 92 Economics of Supplemental Grain Feeding... 94 Energy Sources... 96 Fiber... 97 Fat Supplementation... 98 Protein... 98 Supplemental Forages and TMRs... 99 Advantages of Supplemental Forage... 100 Disadvantages of Supplemental Forage... 100 Supplementation with a ptmr... 100 Effects of Energy/Protein Relationships on Milk Production and Composition... 102 Milk Composition... 102 Milk Fatty Acids Conjugated Linoleic Acid... 103 Gradually Introduce Pasture in Spring... 104 Using Models to Predict Limiting Nutrients and Animal Performance with Pasture-Based Diets... 104 Using Pasture in Various Management Systems... 105 Reproduction in Pasture-Based Dairy Systems... 106 Dairy Reproductive Performance Has Declined... 106 Seasonal Calving Versus Year-Round Calving... 106 BCS and Reproduction... 108 Summer Heat... 109 Genetics of the Grazing Cow for Reproduction and Performance... 110 Artificial Insemination or Natural Service... 110 vi
Dry Cow Considerations... 112 Pasture for Replacement Heifers... 112 Managing the Feeding Program... 114 CHAPTER 5: SHEEP NUTRITION AND MANAGEMENT...115 Reproductive Biology and Its Influence on Production... 115 Ewe Nutrition... 116 Tables of Requirements... 117 Maintenance... 117 Flushing... 117 Early Gestation... 119 Late Gestation... 120 Lactation... 120 Ewe Lambs... 121 Monitoring Body Condition... 121 Forage Quality... 121 Nutrition of Growing Lambs... 121 Growth and Development... 123 Creep Feeding... 123 Finishing Market Lambs... 124 Development of Replacement Ewe and Ram Lambs... 125 Minerals and Vitamins for Sheep... 128 Macrominerals... 128 Microminerals... 128 Vitamins... 130 Mineral Intake... 130 Forms of Mineral Supplements... 130 Types of Mineral Supplements... 131 Lambs Fed a High-Grain Diet... 131 Summary... 131 Flock Health Considerations for Sheep... 132 Internal Parasites... 132 Coccidiosis... 133 Foot Rot... 133 Reproductive Diseases... 133 Metabolic Diseases... 134 Other Diseases... 134 Genetics and Selection... 135 Breeding Systems... 135 Crossbreeding Systems... 136 Breeds... 137 Ram Selection... 138 Ewe Selection... 139 vii
CHAPTER 5: SHEEP NUTRITION AND MANAGEMENT (continued) Production Records... 139 Predator Control... 140 Production Systems... 140 Early Winter Lambing System... 147 Late Winter Lambing System... 147 Spring Lambing System... 148 Fall Lambing System... 149 Wool Production and Marketing... 150 CHAPTER 6: GOAT NUTRITION AND MANAGEMENT... 153 Nutrient Requirements... 153 Introduction... 153 Feeding Requirements... 153 Nutrients Required and Table of Nutritional Requirements... 153 Water... 154 Energy... 156 Protein... 156 Minerals... 156 Vitamins... 157 Factors Influencing Goat Nutritional Requirements... 157 Body Condition Scoring... 158 Introduction... 158 Description of Body Condition Scoring... 158 How to Determine Body Condition... 159 Using Body Condition Scores... 159 Flushing... 160 General Management Requirements... 161 Nutritional Management... 161 Nutrition of Newborn Kids... 161 Nutrition of Replacement Does... 162 Nutrition of Breeding Bucks... 162 Suggested Supplemental Feeding Program for Meat Goats... 162 Suggested Supplemental Feeding Program for Dairy Goats... 163 Common Nutritional Diseases... 172 Pregnancy Disease or Ketosis... 172 Urinary Calculi or Urinary Stones... 172 Grass Tetany... 172 Gastrointestinal Parasite Management... 172 Introduction... 172 Roundworms... 173 Drug Resistance... 175 FAMACHA... 175 viii
Coccidia... 176 Forages for Meat Goats... 177 Introduction... 177 Grazing Behavior and Grazing Time... 177 Grazing Management for Meat Goats... 178 Clearing Land with Meat Goats... 179 Mixed Grazing and Stocking Rates... 179 Animal Selection, Breeding, and Genetics... 180 Production Traits... 180 Introduction... 180 Adaptability... 180 Reproductive Rate... 180 Growth Rate... 181 Carcass Characteristics... 181 Conformation and General Appearance... 181 Breeding... 181 Introduction... 181 Breeding Season... 183 Heat Detection... 183 Estrous Cycles... 184 Puberty, Breeding, and Body Size... 184 Gestation Length... 184 Goat Genetics... 185 Introduction... 185 Boer Goat... 185 Spanish Goat... 185 Myotonic Goat... 186 Nubian Goat... 186 Alpine, Oberhasli, Saanen, and Toggenburg Goats... 186 LaMancha Goat... 186 Pygmy and Nigerian Dwarf Goats... 186 Kiko Goat... 187 CHAPTER 7: HORSE NUTRITION AND MANAGEMENT... 188 Introduction... 188 Nutritional Requirements of Horses... 189 Body Condition Scoring... 189 Scoring Method... 191 Contribution of Pasture to the Feed Ration... 193 Pasture Yield and Pasture Season Length... 194 Pasture Forage Quality... 194 Horse Energy Demands... 194 Forage Intake Rate... 196 ix
CHAPTER 7: HORSE NUTRITION AND MANAGEMENT (continued) Pasture Carrying Capacity... 196 Pasture Management and Grazing Management A Balancing Act... 197 Pasture Management... 197 Forage Species Selection... 198 Fertilization and ph... 200 Clipping... 201 Manure Management/Dragging... 201 Weed Control... 202 Grazing Management... 202 Continuous Grazing... 202 Rotational Grazing... 203 Sacrifice Areas... 205 Fencing... 205 Water, Minerals, and Shelter... 205 Plant-Related Health Problems... 206 Tall Fescue/Endophytes... 206 Ryegrass/Staggers... 207 Alsike Clover/Photosensitivity... 207 Red Clover/Slobbers... 207 Sorghum/Prussic Acid... 207 Poisonous Plants... 207 Summary... 208 CHAPTER 8: PARASITE CONTROL: BASIC BIOLOGY AND CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR PASTURE-BASED SYSTEMS... 209 Introduction... 209 Internal Parasites... 209 Roundworms or Nematodes... 209 Basic Biology... 209 Drug Resistance... 211 Selective Treatment and Pasture Management Strategies... 212 Determining Worm Resistance to Dewormers... 215 Collecting and Handing Fecal Samples... 217 Special Considerations for Goats and Cattle... 217 Tapeworms... 219 Protozoa... 220 Coccidiosis... 220 Toxoplasmosis... 221 External Parasites... 221 Flies... 221 Heel Flies or Cattle Grubs... 221 Horn Flies... 222 x
Face Flies... 223 Miscellaneous Flies... 224 Lice... 225 Mites... 225 Ticks... 226 Responsible Drug Use... 226 Abbreviations... 227 Conversion Tables... 228 Glossary... 231 References... 232 About NRAES... 246 xi