The Effect of Leisure Coping Strategies and Social Support on Sports Volunteers Well-being in 2011 National Game at Changhua

The Effect of Leisure Coping Strategies and Social Support on Sports Volunteers Well-being in 2011 National Game at Changhua Cheng-Lung Wu, Department of Marine Sports and Recreation, National Penghu University of Science and Technology, Taiwan Yung-Chen Wang, Department of Sport Management, Aletheia University, Taiwan Yong Tang, Corresponding Author, Department of Aquatic Sport and Recreation, Taipei College of Maritime Technology, Taiwan ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of leisure coping strategies and social support on sports volunteers well-being in 2011national game at Changhua. 500 copies of the questionnaire were distributed with convenience data collection. 438 questionnaires were gathered, the valid response rate was 87.6%. The results indicate that (1) social support of sports volunteers has a significant effect on their well-being and (2) leisure coping strategies also has a significant effect on their perception toward well-being. Finally, this study provides practical suggestions for sports event organizers about the effect of leisure coping strategies and the social support on sports volunteers well-being. Keywords: Volunteering, structural equation modeling, sport game INTRODUCTION As the organizer of 2011 National Games, the Changhua County Government, based on the theme of Happiness for Taiwan, National Games in Changhua, actively integrated various economic, social, cultural and recreational resources to host the activities of the National Games with the aim to present a perfect and unforgettable sports event with the combination of history, features, gourmet cuisine, and the culture of Changhua. Through the participation and efforts of the organizing committee staff, sponsors, and sports volunteers, there were well-planned venues, comprehensive services during the event, a warm atmosphere and sincere greetings provided for elite athletes and spectators from different parts of Taiwan. In addition, to incorporate the event with central government s active promotion of volunteerism, Changhua County, in this event, demonstrated its long-term efforts by promoting volunteering services and the Doubling Volunteerism Project, to realize the vision of a Sunny Changhua and the Volunteer Family. Through national games activities, various volunteering services groups were able to demonstrate management results and vigor, boost volunteer morale, and promote friendship among volunteers. The recognition of outstanding volunteers, volunteer families and groups helped reinforce the relationships and cohesion between social welfare volunteer groups. The provision of volunteering services offers the public the opportunities to actually participate in social activities and supplements the functions of social organizations and groups. If volunteering manpower is best used by relevant sports activities, sports policies and projects can 86

be successfully promoted, the utilization of manpower can be maximized and volunteers, at the same time, are presented with opportunities for self growth and satisfaction of individual needs (Gan, 2003; Liu, 2003; Huang & Wang, 2003). At present, Taiwan s sports policies encourage the hosting of major international sports events and conferences (The ROC Sports White Paper, 1999), while the major directions of current sports policies focus on actively improving the quality of sports events hosted in Taiwan, effectively implementing policy integration, and enhancing the national image and international exchanges (Sports Affairs Council, 2005). In accordance with the expansion in scope of international sports events in Taiwan that came with the hosting of the 21 st 2009 Deaflympics in Taipei and the 8 th World Games in Kaohsiung, the organizers hope appropriate financial, material and human resources can help the formation of high quality and efficient services teams, when combined with collective power and passion for the smooth facilitation of sports events. The active search for business sponsors and volunteers is a major component of the organization of international large sports events, and the key to successful ones. The full understanding and efficient management of the motivation and participation of volunteers enable sports volunteers to serve the public with their talents and professional skills while simultaneously satisfying their own expectations. Accordingly, this issue cannot be ignored (Situ, 1999; Chou, 2002; Cheng, 2004). Liu (2003) suggests that according to free will, sports volunteers provide individuals or organizations voluntary services for sports or leisure activities and receive no financial rewards. Chou (2002) refers to those who provide services of sports activities, events, and recreational sports activities for individuals or organizations because of free will, and not because of financial rewards as sports volunteers while Cheng (2005) contests professional sports volunteers are those who serve out of their own free will, not for financial returns, and actively participate in the sports activities of individuals or organizations, sports events, or recreational sports activities. To synthesize these definitions, people who participate in voluntary services for sports courses, activities, events, and recreational sports activities out of free will and not out of an expectation of financial rewards are referred to as sports volunteers. The word volunteer comes from the Latin voluntas meaning free will or autonomy. Hence, volunteers are those who provide voluntary services and work out of free will, not out of individual responsibility or legal duties, with passion, knowledge, labor, experiences, skills, and time to contribute to the society without acquiring financial rewards, to provide supplementary series to improve the effectiveness of public affairs and public goods in the society. As a result, volunteers have three key features: (1) serving out of free will; (2) without acquiring financial rewards or profiting; (3) serving only for public affairs and social goods, limited to volunteers collected by governmental sector, institutions, and non-profit organizations; and (4) participation in supplementary work rather than regular businesses. Expanding on the definition and features of volunteers, there are sports volunteers who serve individuals or organizations voluntarily out of free will, not out of an expectation of financial rewards, for sports activities, sports events, and recreational sports activities. The promotion of sports volunteers, who serve not for the purpose of financial rewards in regular supportive operations and activities of sports club, associations, and international and regional events with the continuous provision of professional knowledge and time, can be traced to the 2006 Educational Training and Seminar of Sports Volunteers for School Sports Events of Ministry of Education. The seminar, organized by Taiwan Normal University, aimed to integrate 87

social resources, encourage participation in sports voluntary services among college students, promote voluntary services for the facilitation of sports development, and improve recreational living quality (Ministry of Education, 2006). The service scope of sports volunteers is classified into two types sports coaching and sports services, including services related to coaching, administration, and general affairs to provide supplementary services for the promotion of recreational sports and public sports (Sports Affairs Council, 2003). The Ministry of Education encourages school sports events volunteerism with the goal to integrate sch ool resources and motivate teachers and students to engage in off campus services by participating in supportive projects such as sports coaching, event services, and sports activities. Lin, Lin & Chiu (2006) observe that if the motivation and relevant factors for volunteers to participate in sports events can be understood, volunteers are likely to work with their talents, reach achievements, and enjoy the fun of volunteering, all resulting in an improved willingness to volunteer. As indicated in the relevant literature, leisure participation helps to release pressure and increase a sense of happiness. However, in terms of the type of leisure participation, most studies examine sports-based leisure activities (Lu, 1998; Huang, 2001; Reijeski, Brawley & Shu maker, 1996). Research subjects often included teachers (Huang, 2001) and community residents (Lu & Argyle, 1994; Wu, 2001). Recognizing the gap in the literature, this study investigates eight types of recreational participation, as well as a high stress group to examine the influence of job stress of the high stress group on well-being from the perspective of leisure participation intervention. This study also provides alternative suggestions for significantly reducing job stress and improving well-being based on an understanding of the role of leisure participation in job stress for those in the high stress group. Li, Chen, & Chen (2011) mention the organization of volunteers for sports events should be maintained to continuously promote leisure sports by organizing relevant activities or seminars to improve public awareness and participation in volunteering as well as to improve leisure sports participation and quality. The literature shows leisure activities also provide social support, a method to regulate stress and, through the participation in leisure activities, generate behaviors or perceptions that help to regulate stress, the eponymous leisure coping strategies. Functionally, leisure coping strategies serve to cope with negative stresses in life and to facilitate positive coping results for the enhancement of physical and psychological health. Coping strategies are developed through a series of processes (Hsu & Yu, 2005). Lazarus & Folkman (1984) divided coping strategies into two categories. First, problem-focused strategies deal with or change the causes of problems, including changes to the environment or individual behaviors such as direct action, the search for assistance, or syndrome management to directly change sources of stress. Second, emotional-focused strategies regulate emotional responses to problems when threats and challenging environment cannot be changed, such as perception, re-evaluation, and constraints without directly changing sources of stress but releasing stress and reducing psychological pain. Cooper (1998) proposes several types of coping strategies in Occupational Stress Index (OPI) including searching for social support, task-oriented strategies, logic management, time management, and involvement and devotion. Kuo (1994) suggests three types of coping strategies, including physiological strategies such as life style management, relaxation therapy, and medical treatment; perception strategies such as prevention-oriented and therapy technology; and behavior strategies such as reinforcement of self-care, confidence building, and time management. Iwasaki & Mannell (2000a) define leisure coping strategies as leisure coping behavior and perception developed to respond to stress in life, 88

along dimensions including leisure companionship, relaxation leisure and leisure for the enhancement of positive emotions. Iwasaki & Mannell further indicate that although stress does harm to physical and psychological health, different coping strategies result from factors including the varying attributes of a particular stress and the social psychology and life style of an individual, such as the type of leisure activities playing the buffering role to improve health and well -being. Hence, coping strategies are diversified and purposive. The success of leisure activities in coping with stress leads several scholars to propose leisure coping strategies. Accordingly, this study adopts leisure as a coping strategy for the purpose of positively facing stress, finding release channels, learning to man age stress, and ultimately living a new life. Although studies show leisure can be used to cope with stress, most studies in Taiwan only discuss the relationship between stress at the workplace and individual health (Chu & Lee, 2001; Lin, Chang, &Tsai, 2004; Chen, 2006; Chen, Wang, & Lee, 2008). A few focus on leisure participation as coping strategies, and among these, most select a certain classification of professionals as research subjects, such as tour guides (Wu & Liang, 1998), flight attendants (Hsu & Yu, 2005), high-tech workers (Hsu, Tsai, Huang & He, 2007), police officers (Shan et al., 2008) and students (Kuo & Kao, 2008). Fewer still examined the issue from the perspective of family life cycle. Lu (1997) believed that well-being comes from satisfaction regarding life, and is composed of positive and negative emotions. Well -being is a longer lasting and naturally occurring satisfaction and great joy toward life, a state of joyful emotion that one wishes to prolong. Lu & Argyle (1994), in a study of community residents, find that leisure participation is highly related to well-being. Chao (1996) investigates teachers and discovers leisure activities help to release pressure as well as further provide mental and physical relaxation and joyful experiences (Liao, 1977). In particular, these findings emphasize the effectiveness of sports leisure at releasing pressure (Huang, 2001). Shivers (1967) further points out the level of satisfaction associated with leisure activities improves the psychological and physical health of individuals as well as their well-being. As a result, this study explores the influence of social support and leisure coping strategies of sports volunteers at the Changhua National Games on the influence of well-being, with the expectation that the research results help to understand the relationship between social support and leisure coping strategies of sports volunteers as well as well-being, and provide reference for the promotion and management of sports volunteers by relevant organizations. RESEARCH METHOD Research Subjects This study aims to examine the influence of social support and leisure coping strategies on the well-being of volunteers who participated in services during the 2011 Changhua National Games. Responses were gathered by a convenience sampling of 500 sports volunteers asked to complete a questionnaire, of which 497 were returned (99.4%), and 438 of the returned questionnaires were valid (87.6%). Research Tool The research questionnaire consists of four parts: (1) personal information; (2) the Scale of Social Support compiled according to Kuo (2010), including 14 questions along three dimensions 89

of emotional support, instrumental support, and informational support; (3) the Scale of Leisure Coping Strategies referring to that of Liu (2009) used for life insurance agents including 14 questions along three dimensions of leisure companionship, relaxation leisure, and leisure that improves emotional health; and (4) the Scale of Well-being referring to that of Liu (2009) including 15 questions along three dimensions of satisfaction toward life, satisfaction toward work, and satisfaction toward family. The Scales of Social support, Leisure Coping Strategies, and Well-being used by this study are measured along a Likert s five-point scale from 1 to 5, each corresponding to very much disagree, disagree, fair, agree, and very much agree. Research Structure According to research purpose and findings of literature review, the proposed research structure of this study is shown as in Diag. 1: Diagram 1: Research Structure Research Hypotheses Through literature review and research structure, the proposed hypotheses are as follows: Hypothesis 1: Social support received by sports volunteers has a significant influence on their well-being. Hypothesis 2: Leisure coping strategies of volunteers have a significant influence on their well-being. RESULTS Results 1. Data analysis of structural equation model This study adopts a structural equation model to examine causal relationship among research variables. The high reference modification index (MI) in confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) indicates an error in inter-question measurement (Hsu, 2010; Chen, 2007). Since higher MI values are detected in Questions A5, A6, B5, B9, B10, B13, C1, C2, C4, C5, C12, and C14, they were removed from the sample. 2. Measurement and structural model analysis a. Verification of convergence validity CFA is conducted for all scales used in this study. Factor loading lies between 0.612-0.846 90

for all three dimensions of the Scale of Social Support (emotional support, instrumental support, and informational support), while composite reliability (CR) is between 0.721-0.844 and average variance extracted (AVE) is between 0.533-0.643 (Table 1). Table 1: Convergence Validity of Scale of Social Support Latent Variables Observation Variables Factor Loading CR AVE C7 0.813 0.844 0.643 Emotional support C10 0.836 C13 0.754 Instrumental support C8 0.717 0.721 0.564 C11 0.783 C3 0.714 0.771 0.533 Informational support C6 0.846 C9 0.612 Factor loading for the Scale of Leisure Coping Strategies, including three dimensions of leisure companionship, relaxation leisure, and leisure that improves emotional health, lies between 0.539-0.900, while CR is between 0.814-0.899 and AVE lies between 0.524-0.692 (Table 2). Table 2: Convergence Validity of Scale of Leisure Coping Strategies Latent Variables Observation Variables Factor Loading CR AVE A1 0.539 0.832 0.559 Leisure companionship A2 0.764 A3 0.844 A4 0.806 A7 0.703 0.814 0.524 Relaxation leisure A8 0.740 A9 0.810 A10 0.632 A11 0.875 0.899 0.692 Leisure that improves emotional health A12 0.900 A13 0.857 A14 0.678 Factor loading for the Scale of Well-being, including three dimensions of satisfaction toward life, satisfaction toward work, and satisfaction toward family lies between 0.751-0.916, while CR and AVE respectively lie between 0.882-0.901 and 0.696-0.748 (Table 3). Table 3: Convergence Validity of Scale of Well-being Latent Variables Observation Variables Factor Loading CR AVE B1 0.799 0.901 0.696 Satisfaction toward life B2 0.861 B3 0.916 B4 0.751 B6 0.879 0.882 0.715 Satisfaction toward work B7 0.891 B8 0.761 B11 0.898 0.899 0.748 Satisfaction toward family B12 0.888 B14 0.805 91

In short, CFA of the three scales used in this study meet standards proposed by Hair, Anderson, Tatham and Black (1998): 1. factor loading higher than 0.5; 2. CR higher than 0.3; and 3. AVE higher than 0.5. As a result, the various dimensions of three scales have convergence validity. b. Verification of discriminant validity Discriminant validity verifies the statistical variance of two dimensions, with results shown in Tables 4 and 5. As the confidence intervals around the standardized correlation coefficient do not include 1, the Scales of Leisure Coping Strategies and Well-being have discriminant validity between dimensions. Leisure companionship Leisure companionship Table 4: 95% of Confidence Intervals of Bootstrap Correlation Coefficients of Leisure Coping Strategies Bias-corrected Percentile method Parameter Estimated Lower Upper Lower Upper <--> Relaxation leisure 0.722 0.628 0.806 0.631 0.808 <--> Relaxation leisure <--> Leisure that improves emotional health Leisure that improves emotional health 0.599 0.501 0.690 0.499 0.689 0.657 0.564 0.755 0.556 0.750 Table 5: 95% of Confidence Intervals of Bootstrap Correlation Coefficients of Well -being Parameter Bias-corrected Percentile method Estimated Lower Upper Lower Upper Satisfaction toward life <--> Satisfaction toward work 0.665 0.568 0.745 0.568 0.745 Satisfaction toward life <--> Satisfaction toward family 0.644 0.560 0.717 0.560 0.716 Satisfaction toward work <--> Satisfaction toward family 0.519 0.419 0.621 0.418 0.621 All chi-squared values of factor limited R=1 models increase by 3.84 over that of unlimited R=1 models, and reached the significant value indicating the correlation between the latent variables of Scale of Social Support can be discriminant and supporting the validity. Emotional support Instrumental support Table 6: Discriminant Validity of Social Support Pairwise factor Chi-squared value of Chi-squared value of Freedom unlimited model unlimited model Freedom Instrumental support 9.324 4 22.841 5 13.517 Informational support 26.122 8 38.440 9 12.318 Informational support 0.654 4 25.137 5 24.483 Chi-squared difference χ2 3. Fitness analysis of structural model Fitness analysis of structural models can be divided into the fitness of research model and the explanatory analysis of the overall research model. Wu (2009), Bagozzi & Yi (1998), Bentler (1995) suggest the use of three models of fit index, relative fit index, and parsimonious fit to test 92

the matched degree of hypothesized conceptual models and actual information. Thus, this study uses seven indices to evaluate the fitness of the overall model including the χ2 test, the ratio of χ2 and degrees of freedom, goodness of fit index (GFI), adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), comparative fit index (CFI), and parsimony-adjusted comparative fit index (PCFI). The results of the various fitness tests are reproduced as in Table 7. The ratio of chi-square and freedom is 2.070, GI GFI is 0.977, AGFI is 0.956, RMSEA is 0.049, CFI is 0.986, and PCFI is 0.657, indicating all fitness indices meet idealized values. Hence, the overall structure of this study reaches good fitness. Diag. 2: Path of Overall Structure Table 7: Fitness of Overall Model Fit Indices Allowance Research Structural Determination of Model Model Fitness χ2(chi-square) Minimized Values 49.682 Freedom 24 Ratio of χ2 and Freedom 1<NC<3 2.070 Fit GFI >0.9 0.977 Fit AGFI >0.9 0.956 Fit RMSEA <0.08 0.049 Fit CFI >0.9 0.986 Fit PCFI >0.5 0.657 Fit 4. Empirical results of research hypotheses The hypotheses of this study mainly examine (1) the significant influence of social support received by sports volunteers on their well-being and (2) the significant influence of leisure coping strategies on their well-being. As shown in Table 8, social support demonstrates a positive influence on well-being, perceived to support Hypothesis 1, while leisure coping strategies are found to have a significant and positive influence on well-being, supporting Hypothesis 2. 93

Table 8: Empirical Results of Research Hypotheses Hypothesis Path Relationship Path Value Support of Hypothesis 1 Social support well-being.38* Yes 2 Leisure coping strategies well-being.21* Yes * p<.05 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Comprehensive Discussion As shown in research results, there is an influential model of the path of social support and leisure coping strategies on well-being. From the perspective of sports volunteers in the literature review, social support and leisure coping strategies are found to be correlated, which explains the close link between social support and leisure coping strategies. This study further discovers the interaction between volunteers also affects the adoption of leisure coping strategies, while both also influence the perception of individuals toward well-being. In terms of theory of well-being, regression analysis is used to support the argument that by participating in various types of activities, individuals are able to interact with others, put individual talents to full use, gain support, confirm the value of their individual existence, enhance their sense of accomplishment, and produce a sense of well-being (Argyle, 1987). Lu (1998) and Tseng (2007) adopt structural equation models to examine influential factors of well-being perceived by individuals, assuming the influence of social support on well-being perceived in the design of the model test. The empirical results supported the explanatory ability of social support for perceived well-being. Several scholars (Wu, 2007; Li, 2007; Chou, 2009) proved the stronger support leads to better perceived well-being, while instrumental support, emotional support, and informational support all significantly influence perceived well -being. Their research results correspond to those of this study, showing the influence of social support on well-being perceived by individuals. Among the predictive factors of perceived well-being, satisfaction toward the participation in leisure activities has more influence on well-being perceived than that toward family, health or income (Riddick, 1986). This study echoes the finding of other empirical studies highlighting the existence of a positive and significant relationship between leisure participation and satisfaction as well as the sense of well-being (Chiao, 2004; ;Brown, Frankel and Fennell, 1991; Coleman and Iso-Ahola, 1993; Lu and Hu, 2001). It shows leisure coping strategies have a significant and positive influence on the sense of well-being. Leisure not only helps to release stress and maintain physical and mental health but also improves well-being perceived by individuals (Godbey, 1994). Conclusion 1. Social support received by sports volunteers at the National Games has explanatory power for their perception of well-being. As indicated by the research results, the social support received by sports volunteers at the National Games has a significant influence on their perception of well-being. In summary, support from others is the dominant factor during the process of enhancing perceived well -being. In addition, emotional support, instrumental support, and informational support also have a significant influence on the sense of well-being. 94

2. Leisure coping strategies of sports volunteers at the National Games has explanatory power for their sense of well-being. The research results find leisure coping strategies adopted by sports volunteers at the National Games has a significant influence on their perception of well-being. In other words, through participation in sports event activities, sports volunteers gained positive benefits and adopted the optimal strategies to maintain physiological and psychological health for quality of life and well-being enhancement. SUGGESTIONS 1. This study discovers the influence of background variables on leisure coping strategies, and recommends choosing suitable leisure coping strategies with the benefit of reducing negative emotions through adjusting pressures that may hinder a sense of well-being. 2. As indicated by this study, there is a significant correlation between social support and leisure coping strategies, and it is suggested that sports volunteers for the National Games set an example by participating more in leisure activities, expanding their service scopes, and taking part in sports clubs or teams. Their participation outside the National Games would demonstrate their professional competence and talents as representatives of a positive sports image, as well as facilitate the building and development of sports organizations. 3. The construction of leisure coping mechanism includes both beliefs and strategies, and this study focuses only on the influence of leisure coping strategies and social support on the sense of well-being. In order to completely present the importance of leisure sports, future studies should also incorporate leisure coping beliefs and the acceptance of social support to generate more valuable and practical applications. REFERENCES Argyle, M. (1987). The psychology of happiness. New York: Routledge. Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (1988). On the evaluation for structural equation models. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 16, 74-94. Bentler, P. M. (1995). EQS: Structural equations program manual. Encino, CA: Multivariate Software. Brown, B. A., Frankel, B. G., & Fennell, M. (1991). Happiness through leisure: The impact of type of leisure activity, age, gender and leisure satisfaction on psychology well -being. Journal of Applied Recreation Research, 16(4), 367-391. Chen, C. C. (2006). The Balance between job stress and leisure life- a case study of a teaching career. Journal of Counseling & Guidance, 252, 52-59. Chen, S. Y (2007). AMOS operation of structural equation model. Taipei City: Psychology. Taipei City. Chiou, H. L. (2004). A study on the participation in leisure activities and the sense of well-being of the retired elderly in Kaohsiung city. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Da Yeh University, Changhua County. Chou, W. H. (1996). Psychological factor of sports injuries. China Sport Quarterly, 10(1), 95-104. Chou, S. C. (2009). The sense of well-being of teachers of junior high school teachers who take part-time administrative duties in Taoyuan, Hsinchu, and Miaoli regions. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, National Cheng Chi University, Taipei. Chu, M. J. & Li, C. T. (2001). Globalization, workplace pressures and mental health at work: challenges and sustainable strategies, Taiwan Journal of Public Health, 20(6), 413-422 Coleman, D., & Iso-Ahola, S. E. (1993). Leisure and health: the role of social support and self-determination. Journal of 95

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