Why Do We Conduct Social Research? Answer Practical Questions Make Informed Decisions Change Society Build Basic Knowledge about Society (Detect regulaties in the various social relations)
The Steps of Social Research formulation of a research Issue formulation of a research problem selection of the appropriate type of study sampling of respondents measurement data collection data analysis interpretation and reporting integration of findings in theory or policy
Selection of the Appropriate Type of Study exploratory descriptive hypothesis-testing Evaluational evaluate the problems and find possible links to evaluate them. Try to evaluate what might be the most effective to the solution. example:which approach can best reduce fertility? (a) education, (b) contraception, or (c) economic development
Hypothesis a tentative statement of a relationship between two variables. e.g.: Religious attendance is associated with reduced divorce. Class attendance is positively related to one s GPA. Children who watched violent TV are more likely to become deviant.
Hypothesis (continued) Children who come from single parent homes are more likely to shoplift. Having regular doctor has a positive impact on a person s health. Having health insurance has a positive impact on a person s health. Children with pet dogs adjust better to parents' divorce. Divorced persons are more likely to experience high level of depression.
Variable, Hypothesis, and Theory Variable: Empirical terms of concepts (a concept that varies) concept: industrialization ------>interpersonal interaction variable: number of cars produced per year frequency of face-to-face visits operationalization: the process of translating concepts into variables. Types of Variables: independent variable dependent variable
Independent and Dependent Variable Independent variable: cause variable, the one that identifies forces or conditions that act on something else. Dependent variable: is the effect or the result or outcome of another variable. Construct a sociological hypothesis. Correlation vs. Causality
Sampling of Respondents Basic definitions: Population: The total group of people which meet certain criteria of interest to the researcher. Sample: A subset of cases from the population chosen to represent it. Inference: The process of generalizing results from a sample to the population
Measurement Measurement the assignment of numerals to the response categories of a variable Operationalization is the process of making a concept or variable measurable
Reliability and Validity Reliability of measurement the degree to which the measure generates similar responses over time and across situations Validity of measurement the extent to which the measure accurately reflects what it purports to measure Is reliability independent of validity? Consider smoking behavior How many cigarettes did you smoke yesterday? On average, how many cigarettes do you smoke per week? What s your favorite color? Which question has high validity, reliability?
Methods of Data Collection observation (field research), usually small studies. Common among anthropologists. documentary-historical method (content analysis), non-reactive research survey most popular method of data collection. Gives you ability to sample large populations in a short time, fairly cheap and efficient. Common among sociologists. experiment
Experiment
Hawthorne experiments (1920s), Western Electric Company (Chicago) Managers wanted to know if different levels of lighting would affect productivity. The experiment subjects were female workers In the control room, the level of lighting was held constant, while in the experimental room, the lighting was varied. Which group do you expect to see a higher productivity output? Output increased for both groups Productivity remained high even when the lighting in the experimental room was at such a low level that workers could barely see what they were doing! Why?
Hawthorne experiments (continued) Researchers tested thirteen different work conditions, Including: changed the women's' pay from hourly wages to piece-work, served refreshments, added two 5- minute rest periods, changed the rest periods to two 10-minute periods, let the workers go home early productively went still high Then researchers restored the original conditions, offering none of these added benefits. Now what about the productivity now? Even higher! Men in another plant were observed while they worked and interviewed after work. Researchers expected no change in productivity. What do you think about the productivity of men? It dropped.
Hawthorne experiments (continued II) Why did men s productivity drop? Men feared that higher productivity would lead to a demand for high output from the managers jobs might be lost How do you explain the high productivity level of female workers? Women were pleased at the attention being paid to them. The sociological implication of the study When people know they are being studied, behavior changes.
Data Analysis Univariate bivariate multivariate
Interpretation and Reporting evaluation of procedures and data evaluation of relations theoretical inference policy inference
Reporting Audience Purpose of the research Medium (books, monographs, journal articles, conferences...) Writing style Content (statement of problem, study design and procedure, analysis and interpretation, conclusions and discussion, and bibliography)
Ethical responsibilities 1) protecting the respondents and collaborators in the study 2) providing accurate and complete information
Sources of Social Research Data Government publications (e.g., census report, vital statistics) Existing Surveys (mostly stored in CD ROMs and tapes) NSFH 1988-89 (family and household characteristics) Longitudinal Survey of Youths Labor Survey World Fertility Survey DHS (Demographic and Health Survey) GSS (general social survey about social attitudes) Conduct your own