Detailed Contents Preface xiii About the Author xvi chapter 1. What Is Biopsychology? 1 The Origins of Biopsychology 3 Prescientific Psychology and the Mind-Brain Problem 4 Descartes and the Physical Model of Behavior 4 Helmholtz and the Electrical Brain 6 The Localization Issue 6 In the News: The Mind-Brain Debate Isn t Over 8 Nature and Nurture 9 The Genetic Code 9 Application: A Computer Made of DNA 10 Genes and Behavior 12 The Human Genome Project 12 Heredity: Destiny or Predisposition? 13 PART I. Neural Foundations of Behavior: The Basic Equipment chapter 2. Communication Within the Nervous System 23 The Cells That Make Us Who We Are 24 Neurons 24 Application: Targeting Ion Channels 32 Glial Cells 33 How Neurons Communicate With Each Other 36 Chemical Transmission at the Synapse 36 Regulating Synaptic Activity 41 Neurotransmitters 42 Of Neuronal Codes, Neural Networks, and Computers 44 Application: Agonists and Antagonists in the Real World 45 chapter 3. The Organization and Functions of the Nervous System 53 The Central Nervous System 54 The Forebrain 55 Application: The Case of Phineas Gage 62 The Midbrain and Hindbrain 66 The Spinal Cord 67 Protecting the Central Nervous System 70
The Peripheral Nervous System 71 The Cranial Nerves 71 The Autonomic Nervous System 71 Development and Change in the Nervous System 74 The Stages of Development 74 How Experience Modifies the Nervous System 78 Damage and Recovery in the Central Nervous System 79 In the News: Is The Brain Too Fragile for Sports? 81 Application: Mending the Brain With Computer Chips 84 chapter 4. The Methods and Ethics of Research 91 Science, Research, and Theory 92 Theory and Tentativeness in Science 92 Experimental Versus Correlational Studies 93 Research Techniques 95 Staining and Imaging Neurons 95 Light and Electron Microscopy 98 Measuring and Manipulating Brain Activity 98 Brain Imaging Techniques 102 Application: Brain Implants That Move 103 Application: Scanning King Tut 107 Investigating Heredity 108 Research Ethics 112 Plagiarism and Fabrication 112 Protecting the Welfare of Research Participants 112 Gene Therapy 115 Stem Cell Therapy 116 In the News: A Brave New World? 116 PART II. Motivation and Emotion: What Makes Us Go chapter 5. Drugs, Addiction, and Reward 125 Psychoactive Drugs 126 Opiates 127 Depressants 128 Stimulants 130 Psychedelics 134 Marijuana 135 In the News: Controversy Over Medical Marijuana Takes a New Turn 137 Addiction 137 The Neural Basis of Addiction and Reward 138 Dopamine and Reward 139 Application: Is Compulsive Gambling an Addiction? 140 Dopamine, Learning, and Brain Plasticity 141 Treating Drug Addiction 142
The Role of Genes in Addiction 146 Separating Genetic and Environmental Influences 146 What Is Inherited? 147 Implications of Addiction Research 149 chapter 6. Motivation and the Regulation of Internal States 155 Motivation and Homeostasis 156 Theoretical Approaches to Motivation 156 Simple Homeostatic Drives 158 Hunger: A Complex Drive 160 The Role of Taste 161 Application: Predator Control Through Learned Taste Aversion 164 Digestion and the Two Phases of Metabolism 164 Signals That Start a Meal 168 Signals That End a Meal 169 Long-Term Controls 170 Obesity 172 The Myths of Obesity 174 The Contribution of Heredity 174 Obesity and Reduced Metabolism 175 Application: The Epigenetics of Weight Regulation 177 Treating Obesity 178 Anorexia and Bulimia 181 Environmental and Genetic Contributions 182 The Role of Serotonin and Dopamine 182 chapter 7. The Biology of Sex and Gender 189 Sex as a Form of Motivation 190 Arousal and Satiation 191 The Role of Testosterone 192 Brain Structures and Neurotransmitters 193 Odors, Pheromones, and Sexual Attraction 196 Application: Of Love and Bonding 198 The Biological Determination of Sex 198 Chromosomes and Hormones 199 Prenatal Hormones and the Brain 201 Gender-Related Behavioral and Cognitive Differences 202 Some Demonstrated Male-Female Differences 202 Origins of Male Female Differences 202 Sexual Anomalies 204 Male Pseudohermaphrodites 204 Female Pseudohermaphrodites 205 Sex Anomalies and the Brain 206 In the News: Sex, Gender, and Sports 207 Ablatio Penis: A Natural Experiment 207
Sexual Orientation 209 The Social Influence Hypothesis 210 Genes and Sexual Orientation 211 Hormonal Influence 212 Brain Structures 213 The Challenge of Female Homosexuality 215 Social Implications of the Biological Model 215 chapter 8. Emotion and Health 223 Emotion and the Nervous System 224 Autonomic and Muscular Involvement in Emotion 224 The Emotional Brain 227 The Prefrontal Cortex 229 Application: Why I Don t Jump Out of Airplanes 231 The Amygdala 231 Hemispheric Specialization in Emotion 233 Stress, Immunity, and Health 234 Stress as an Adaptive Response 234 Negative Effects of Stress 235 Social and Personality Variables 237 Application: One Aftermath of 9/11 Is Stress-Related Brain Damage 238 Pain as an Adaptive Emotion 239 Biological Origins of Aggression 240 Hormones and Aggression 241 The Brain s Role in Aggression 242 Serotonin and Aggression 243 Heredity and Environment 245 In the News: Aggression, Genes, and the Law 246 Part III. Interacting With the World chapter 9. Hearing and Language 253 Hearing 255 The Stimulus for Hearing 255 The Auditory Mechanism 256 Frequency Analysis 260 Locating Sounds With Binaural Cues 267 Application: Cochlear and Brainstem Implants to Restore Hearing 267 Language 270 Broca s Area 271 Wernicke s Area 272 The Wernicke-Geschwind Model 272 Reading, Writing, and Their Impairment 275 Mechanisms of Recovery From Aphasia 278 A Language-Generating Mechanism? 279 Language in Nonhumans 282 Neural and Genetic Antecedents 283
chapter 10. Vision and Visual Perception 293 Light and the Visual Apparatus 294 The Visible Spectrum 294 The Eye and Its Receptors 295 Pathways to the Brain 298 Application: Restoring Lost Vision 300 Color Vision 300 Trichromatic Theory 301 Opponent Process Theory 301 A Combined Theory 303 Color Blindness 306 Form Vision 307 Contrast Enhancement and Edge Detection 307 Hubel and Wiesel s Theory 309 Spatial Frequency Theory 312 The Perception of Objects, Color, and Movement 313 The Two Pathways of Visual Analysis 314 Disorders of Visual Perception 316 The Problem of Final Integration 321 Application: When Binding Goes Too Far 322 chapter 11. The Body Senses and Movement 329 The Body Senses 330 Proprioception 330 The Skin Senses 330 The Vestibular Sense 332 The Somatosensory Cortex and the Posterior Parietal Cortex 333 Pain and Its Disorders 336 In the News: Getting an Anesthetic Shouldn t Hurt 338 Application: Treating Pain in Limbs That Aren t There 343 Movement 344 The Muscles 344 The Spinal Cord 345 The Brain and Movement 346 Disorders of Movement 351 Part IV. Complex Behavior chapter 12. Learning and Memory 363 Learning as the Storage of Memories 364 Amnesia: The Failure of Storage and Retrieval 365 In the News: The Legacy of HM 366 Mechanisms of Consolidation and Retrieval 366 Where Memories Are Stored 368 Two Kinds of Learning 370 Working Memory 371
Brain Changes in Learning 372 Long-Term Potentiation 372 How LTP Happens 374 Neural Growth in Learning 374 Consolidation Revisited 376 Changing Our Memories 377 Application: Total Recall 378 Learning Deficiencies and Disorders 379 Effects of Aging on Memory 379 Alzheimer s Disease 380 Application: Genetic Interventions for Alzheimer s 386 Korsakoff s Syndrome 386 chapter 13. Intelligence and Cognitive Functioning 393 The Nature of Intelligence 394 What Does Intelligence Mean? 394 The Structure of Intelligence 395 The Biological Origins of Intelligence 396 The Brain and Intelligence 396 Specific Abilities and the Brain 400 Application: We Aren t the Only Tool Users 402 Heredity and Environment 403 Application: Enhancing Intelligence and Performance 406 Deficiencies and Disorders of Intelligence 407 Effects of Aging on Intelligence 407 Intellectual Disability 409 Autism 412 In the News: Childhood Vaccines and Autism 418 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 419 chapter 14. Psychological Disorders 427 Schizophrenia 429 Characteristics of the Disorder 429 Heredity 431 Two Kinds of Schizophrenia 433 The Dopamine Hypothesis 434 Beyond the Dopamine Hypothesis 434 Brain Anomalies in Schizophrenia 436 Affective Disorders 443 Heredity 444 The Monoamine Hypothesis of Depression 445 Electroconvulsive Therapy 447 Application: Electrical Stimulation for Depression 448 Antidepressants, ECT, and Neural Plasticity 448 Rhythms and Affective Disorders 449
Bipolar Disorder 450 Brain Anomalies in Affective Disorder 451 Suicide 452 Anxiety Disorders 454 Generalized Anxiety, Panic Disorder, and Phobia 454 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 455 In the News: Virtual Reality Isn t Just for Video Games 456 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 457 Application: Of Hermits and Hoarders 459 chapter 15. Sleep and Consciousness 467 Sleep and Dreaming 468 Circadian Rhythms 470 Rhythms During Waking and Sleeping 473 The Functions of REM and Non-REM Sleep 475 Sleep and Memory 476 Brain Structures of Sleep and Waking 478 Sleep Disorders 481 In the News: In the Still of the Night 483 Sleep as a Form of Consciousness 485 The Neural Bases of Consciousness 485 Awareness 486 Attention 488 The Sense of Self 490 Theoretical Explanations of Consciousness 496 Application: Determining Consciousness When It Counts 499 Glossary 504 References 513 Chapter-Opening Photo Credits 565 Author Index 566 Subject Index 595