Larry Editors A. DeWerd Michael Kissick The Phantoms of Medical and Health Physics Devices for Research and Development ^ Springer
Contents 1 Introduction to Phantoms of Medical and Health Physics 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 History 2 1.3 Phantom Materials 3 1.4 Dosimetry Phantoms 4 1.4.1 Phantom Construction 5 1.4.2 Dosimeters 6 1.4.3 Computational Phantoms 7 1.5 Imaging Phantoms 8 1.6 Scope of the Text 9 1.6.1 Radiation Therapy Phantoms 9 1.6.2 X-ray Imaging Phantoms 10 1.6.3 Non-ionizing Radiation Phantoms 10 1.6.4 Nuclear Medicine Phantoms 11 1.6.5 Health Physics and Computational Phantoms 11 1.7 Conclusion 12 References 12 Part I Phantoms of Radiation Therapy 2 Radiation Therapy Dosimetry Phantoms 17 2.1 Introduction 17 2.1.1 Need for Therapeutic Dosimetry Phantoms 18 2.1.2 Overall Design Goals 18 2.1.3 Literature Review 18 2.2 Common Concepts for Dosimetry Phantoms 19 2.2.1 Classification 19 2.2.2 Phantom Geometry 20 2.2.3 Phantom Composition 20 2.2.4 Phantom Coordinate Systems 22 2.2.5 Dose Measurement System Components 22 2.2.6 Phantom Measurements 23 V
vi Contents 2.3 Water Phantoms 24 2.3.1 Construction of Water Phantoms 24 2.3.2 Characteristics of Water Phantoms 25 2.3.3 Use of Water Phantoms 25 2.3.4 Examples of Water Phantoms 26 2.4 Non-Water Phantoms 27 2.4.1 Construction of Non-Water Phantoms 27 2.4.2 Characteristics of Non-Water Phantoms 27 2.4.3 Examples of Non-Water Phantoms 28 2.4.4 Use of Non-Water Phantoms 29 2.5 Integrated Device Phantoms 30 2.5.1 Construction of Integrated Phantoms 30 2.5.2 Characteristics of Integrated Phantoms 31 2.5.3 Examples of Integrated Phantoms 32 2.5.4 Use of Integrated Phantoms 32 2.6 Therapeutic Clinical Uses 32 2.6.1 Installation and Acceptance Testing 33 2.6.2 Calibration and Commissioning 34 2.6.3 Periodic Performance Monitoring 34 2.6.4 Planned Patient Dose Validating 34 2.7 Future Directions 35 2.7.1 Automated Data Collection, Analysis, and Management 35 2.7.2 Materials that More Closely Mimic the Behavior of Tissue 35 2.7.3 Variable Density Distribution (Deformable) Phantoms 36 2.7.4 High-Resolution 3D Data Acquisition in Parallel 36 2.7.5 In vivo Dose Measurement During Treatment Delivery 36 References 37 3 Anthropomorphic Phantoms for Radiation Oncology Medical Physics 39 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Anthropomorphic Body Phantoms 40 3.2.1 ART Phantom 41 3.2.2 RANDO Phantom 42 3.2.3 ATOM Dosimetry Phantom 43 3.2.4 Custom Body Phantoms 44 3.3 Anthropomorphic Body-Part Phantoms 45 3.3.1 Commercially Available Anthropomorphic Body-Part Phantoms 46
Contents vii 3.3.2 Anthropomorphic Body-Part Phantoms Developed by a QA Service Organization or Institution for Their Own QA Purposes 47 3.4 Summary 49 References 50 4 Motion Phantoms for Radiotherapy 53 4.1 Introduction 53 4.2 Motion in Radiation Therapy 54 4.2.1 Prostate Motion 55 4.2.2 Respiratory Motion 56 4.2.3 Other Treatment Sites Affected by Motion 58 4.3 Quality Assurance Using Motion Phantoms 59 4.3.1 Measuring Patient Motion 59 4.3.2 Accounting for Motion Amplitude 60 4.3.3 Measuring the Impact of Motion Frequency 60 4.3.4 Testing Motion Management Techniques 61 4.4 Motion Phantom Designs 61 4.4.1 Overview of Motion Phantom Requirements 61 4.4.2 Commercial Motion Phantoms 62 4.4.3 Custom Motion Phantoms 65 4.4.4 Motion Phantoms of the Future 68 4.5 Dosimetry with Motion Phantoms 69 References 70 5 Phantoms in Brachytherapy 77 5.1 Introduction 77 5.2 Brachytherapy Dosimetry 78 5.2.1 Experimental Measurements 78 5.2.2 Radiation Transport Simulations 79 5.3 Therapy Simulation and Imaging Phantoms 81 5.3.1 Surgical Simulation 81 5.3.2 Brachytherapy Imaging 82 5.3.3 Contouring Phantoms 84 5.3.4 Equipment Compatibility 84 5.4 Future of Brachytherapy Phantoms 84 References 85 Part II Imaging Phantoms 6 Imaging Phantoms: Conventional X-ray Imaging Applications... 91 6.1 Anthropomorphic Phantom for X-ray Imaging 92 6.1.1 Head/Neck Phantom 92 6.1.2 Torso Phantoms 97
VIM Contents 6.1.3 Whole Body Phantom 100 6.2 Phantoms for Acceptance and QC Tests 101 6.2.1 Radiographic Systems 102 6.2.2 Fluoroscopic Systems Ill 6.3 Vendor-Specific QA Tools 116 6.3.1 Agfa Auto QC Tools 116 6.3.2 Carestream DirectView Total Quality Tool for DR/CR System 117 6.3.3 Fuji FCR 1 Shot Phantom 117 6.3.4 Fuji FCR 1 Shot Phantom Plus 118 6.3.5 GE Quality Assurance Process 119 6.4 Future Development on Imaging Phantoms 119 6.5 Web Resources 121 References 121 7 Computer Tomography Phantom Applications 123 7.1 Historical Perspective 123 7.2 Acceptance and Quality Control Testing 124 7.2.1 Phantoms for Accessing Dosimetry 124 7.2.2 Phantoms for Accessing Image Quality 127 7.3 Use of Phantoms in the Accreditation Process 129 7.4 Anthropomorphic Phantoms for CT Applications 130 7.5 Phantoms for Investigation of Specific Imaging and Dosimetry Issues 134 7.6 Perspectives on Phantom Developments for Image Quality and Dosimetry in CT 135 References 137 8 Mammography Phantoms 143 8.1 Introduction 143 8.2 Phantoms for Imaging 144 8.2.1 Phantom for Quality Control and Accreditation Programs 144 8.2.2 Contrast-Detail Phantom 148 8.3 Phantoms for Dosimetry 150 8.4 Anthropomorphic Phantoms for Mammographic Imaging... 151 8.5 Standard Phantom Use in the Future 153 References 153 9 Phantoms for Ultrasound Experimentation and Quality Control 159 9.1 Background 159 9.2 Physical Parameters Required for Ultrasound Phantoms 161 9.2.1 Sound Speed (Density and Acoustic Impedance)... 162
Contents 9.3 Attenuation 165 9.4 Scattering 166 9.5 Mechanical Properties 167 9.6 Multi-Modality Phantoms Based on TM Gels 167 9.7 Applications of Phantoms in Ultrasound 168 9.8 Image Quality Control 170 9.9 Doppler Phantoms 172 9.9.1 Current/Future Developments 173 9.10 Summary 174 References 175 10 Phantoms for Magnetic Resonance Imaging 181 10.1 Introduction 181 10.2 General MRI Phantom Construction 182 10.3 American College of Radiology Accreditation Phantom 183 10.4 Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative Phantom 187 10.5 National Institute of Standards and Technology Phantom... 188 10.6 Magnetic Field Homogeneity Phantom 189 10.7 Proton Relaxation Phantoms 190 10.8 Diffusion Phantoms 192 10.9 Temperature Considerations 194 References 196 11 Nuclear Medicine and PET Phantoms 201 11.1 Introduction 201 11.2 Mathematical Phantoms 203 11.2.1 Internal Radiation Dosimetry 203 11.2.2 Image Reconstruction and Processing 205 11.3 Physical Phantoms 207 11.3.1 Calibrations 208 11.3.2 Thyroid Uptake Scans 208 11.3.3 Standardized Uptake Value Calibration 208 11.4 Quality Assurance and Acceptance Testing 209 11.4.1 Gamma Camera QC 209 11.4.2 SPECT QC 212 11.4.3 PET Phantoms 213 11.5 Anthropomorphic Physical Phantoms 216 11.6 Preclinical Imaging Phantoms 218 11.7 Other Approaches to Physical Phantoms 219 11.8 Summary 221 References 221
x Contents Part III Computational Phantoms 12 Computational Phantoms for Organ Dose Calculations in Radiation Protection and Imaging 225 12.1 Introduction 225 12.2 Computational Geometries Used for Phantoms 227 12.3 The Evolution of Computational Phantoms 229 12.3.1 First-Generation Stylized Phantoms (Prior to the 1990s) 229 12.3.2 Evolution of Stylized Phantoms 231 12.3.3 Second-Generation Voxel Phantoms (from late 1980 to Early 2000s) 234 12.3.4 BREP Phantoms from 2000s to Present 241 12.4 Applications of Computational Phantoms at RPI 245 12.5 Monte Carlo Methods and Computer Codes 245 12.6 Non-ionizing Radiation Applications 246 12.7 Discussion and Conclusion 247 References 249 13 Applications of Computational Phantoms 263 13.1 Introduction 263 13.2 Computational Phantoms in Medical Physics 265 13.2.1 Applications to Radiation Therapy 265 13.2.2 The Applications to CT Imaging 270 13.2.3 The Applications to Nuclear Medicine 271 13.3 Computational Phantoms in Health Physics 273 13.3.1 Applications to Regulatory Procedures 274 13.3.2 Applications to Environmental Exposures 276 13.3.3 Applications to Nuclear Power Plant Exposures 277 13.4 Discussion 278 References 280 Index 285