Animal Reproduction Chapter 46 Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom Sexual reproduction is the creation of an offspring by fusion of a male gamete (sperm) and female gamete (egg) to form a zygote Asexual reproduction is creation of offspring without the fusion of egg and sperm Fission Separation of a parent into two or more individuals of about the same size Budding New individuals form from outgrowths of existing ones Fragmentation Breaking of the body into pieces, some or all of which develop into adults Parthenogenesis Development of a new individual from an unfertilized egg 1
Advantage of sex Reproductive cycles Sex generates variation and removes deleterious genes Asexual reproduction more favored in stable environments Ovulation is the release of mature eggs at the midpoint of a female cycle Most animals exhibit reproductive cycles related to changing seasons Reproductive cycles are controlled by hormones and environmental cues Mates can be limiting Some organisms can reproduce sexually or asexually, depending on conditions Asexual whiptail lizards are descended from a sexual species, and females still exhibit mating behaviors Two hermaphrodites can mate, and some hermaphrodites can self-fertilize Sex reversal When male dies, largest member of harem becomes male Sex reversal Oysters are male when small, and female when large 2
External fertilization Internal fertilization Generally more parental care with internal fertilization Ensure survival of offspring Gamete production Most species have gonads Organs that produce gametes Simple systems do not have gonads, but gametes form from undifferentiated tissue Annelids More elaborate systems include sets of accessory tubes and glands that carry, nourish, and protect gametes and developing embryos In many insects, the female has a spermatheca in which sperm is stored during copulation 3
Cloaca Common opening between the external environment and the digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems Found in nonmammalian vertebrates Monogamy is rare Mechanisms have evolved to decrease the chance of their mate mating with another individual Human reproduction Ovaries Each ovary contains many follicles, which consist of a partially developed egg, called an oocyte, surrounded by support cells Once a month, an oocyte develops into an ovum (egg) by the process of oogenesis Ovulation expels an egg cell from the follicle, the cells of which produce estradiol prior to ovulation Testes The male gonads consist of highly coiled tubes surrounded by connective tissue Sperm form in these seminiferous tubules Production of normal sperm cannot occur at the body temperatures of most mammals Accessory glands Semen is composed of sperm plus secretions from three sets of accessory glands The two seminal vesicles contribute about 60% of the total volume of semen The prostate gland secretes its products directly into the urethra through several small ducts The bulbourethral glands secrete a clear mucus before ejaculation that neutralizes acidic urine remaining in the urethra 4
Gametogenesis Spermatogenesis differs from oogenesis in three ways Gametogenesis, the production of gametes, differs in male and female, reflecting the distinct structure and function of their gametes Spermatogenesis, the development of sperm, is continuous and prolific millions of sperm are produced per day each sperm takes about 7 weeks to develop Oogenesis, the development of a mature egg, is a prolonged process Immature eggs form in the female embryo All four products of meiosis develop into sperm while only one of the four becomes an egg Spermatogenesis occurs throughout adolescence and adulthood Sperm are produced continuously without the prolonged interruptions in oogenesis Tropic and sex hormones regulate mammalian reproduction Human reproduction is coordinated by hormones from the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and gonads Gamete production, including sexual behavior and the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is secreted by the hypothalamus and directs the release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary FSH and LH regulate processes in the gonads and the production of sex hormones 5
Hormonal control of the female reproductive cycles In females, the secretion of hormones and the reproductive events they regulate are cyclic Prior to ovulation, the endometrium thickens with blood vessels in preparation for embryo implantation If an embryo does not implant in the endometrium, the endometrium is shed in a process called menstruation Ovarian cycle The sequential release of GnRH then FSH and LH stimulates follicle growth Ovarian Cycle Hormones coordinate the uterine cycle with the ovarian cycle Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle 6
Menstrual versus estrous cycles Menstrual cycles are characteristic only of humans and some other primates The endometrium is shed from the uterus in a bleeding called menstruation Sexual receptivity is not limited to a time frame Estrous cycles are characteristic of most mammals The endometrium is reabsorbed by the uterus Sexual receptivity is limited to a heat period In placental mammals, an embryo develops fully within the mother s uterus An egg develops into an embryo in a series of predictable events Embryo implantation and gestation Twins Embryo releases human chorionic gonadotropin (hcg), which prevents menstruation Duration of species pregnancy correlates with body size and maturity of the young at birth 7
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