How Children with Hearing 1 Running Head: How Children with Hearing Impairments How Children with Hearing Impairments Acquire Literacy with the Absence of Oral Language Kendra Leckie St. John Fisher College
How Children with Hearing 2 Abstract This study was focused on the language and literacy acquisition of deaf children. The purpose of this study was to determine how children with hearing impairments learn literacy with the absence of oral language. Participants of this study included an interpreter, two deaf graduate students, and the mother of one of the deaf graduate students. The data collected included interviews of each of the participants, student observation, and classroom observation. The results showed that various teaching strategies can be utilized in order to make literacy learning more accommodating and successful for deaf children in hearing environments. Early interventions along with institutional and family support are what help to make deaf students literacy acquisition more successful.
How Children with Hearing 3 Introduction Oral language is seen as a foundation and integral part of children s literacy acquisition. According to researchers, a child s acquisition of literacy begins from birth as they are using oral language to interact and develop language with others (Pearson & Stephens, 1992). Children use primary and secondary discourses when interacting with others in order to develop language and acquire literacy in the home and within the classroom (Gee, 2001). After reading many articles on literacy, it is evident that oral language has a profound impact upon literacy acquisition. However subsequent to researching many of these articles it is also clear that there is a lack of research regarding how children with hearing impairments acquire literacy. What do instructional strategies look like for a student who cannot to hear oral language or linguistic and cultural variation? How does this impact their literacy acquisition? How are sound oriented lessons such as phonics taught to students with hearing impairments without the use of oral language? How do teachers relay sound differences in letters/words, such as long and short vowels, to students without the student physically hearing them? Given that research is primarily focused on how students without hearing impairments acquire literacy, it is important that research is done in order to provide another aspect of literacy acquisition that happens through the absence of oral language. This would help to broaden the literacy acquisition spectrum to help include more information on how various students may acquire literacy and the instructional strategies used. Theoretical Perspective Literacy is an individual s intricate understanding of both primary and secondary discourses, formed through social interaction with others in and out of the classroom using old and new literacy technologies (Gee, 2001; Larson & Marsh 2005). Gee (2001) writes that there are primary and secondary discourses within one s language. Primary discourses are languages
How Children with Hearing 4 developed within one s cultural context and home early in life, whereas secondary discourses are the languages used in schools, churches, and communities. He states that in order to understand literacy, one must first understand the definition of discourse. Gee (2001) defines literacy as the mastery of or fluent control over a secondary Discourse (p. 529). He writes that one must have control over their secondary discourse; otherwise the individual will fall back on their primary discourse, resulting in no mastery of a second language. Although one can function during this time, it is a disaster socially to the individual. Gee emphasizes, in his research, of the importance of control over the secondary Discourse. This is important; however it is the primary discourse that starts an individual on their literacy and language acquisition. Due to the fact that primary discourses are found within the home, it is vital for educators to remember that each student or individual s dialect and patterns of language use will be different because of the culture they come from. Primary and Secondary discourses are very different, however both are crucial for acquiring literacy. It is evident that the role of oral language development has an important impact on literacy acquisition beginning at an early age. This changes and impacts an individual s acquisition of literacy. Larson and Marsh (2005) write that literacy is acquired through social interactions and collaborative work building upon personal experiences rather than literacy being a set of skills one simply acquires. When trying to understand how people acquire literacy it is through various experiences and use of technologies that one acquires and uses literacy. As many researchers are uncovering, literacy can be acquired several different ways. As mentioned previously, Gee (2001) believed that literacy is acquired through the use of language within primary and secondary discourses, and Larson and Marsh (2005) wrote that literacy is acquired through social interaction with others.
How Children with Hearing 5 To elucidate the meaning of old and new literacy technologies it is thus important to define both. Traditional printed texts such as classroom textbooks, informational texts, and printed research articles are considered old technologies. Blogs, wikis, the internet databases, and ultimately the computer compile the category of what is considered new technologies. Over the years, developing research has indicated that literacy is something that is and can be acquired through various forms of communication, social interaction, classroom activities, and technologies. It is important to keep in mind that not all literacy acquisition is limited within the walls of the classrooms. In fact, literacy learning begins at a very young age in an individual s home. One foundational theory that helps to inform these definitions of literacy is the sociocultural theory. This theory focuses on scaffolding for literacy learning, using a teacher or adult as guidance, building upon what prior knowledge the student might have and expanding it. This imperative communication between student and teacher becomes an important asset for literacy education. This bodes especially true for deaf or hard of hearing children that come from hearing parents because their teachers are essential in helping them learn American Sign Language, their primary discourse. As Larson and Marsh (2005) write, Vygotsky s work was a large component of the sociocultural theory. Vygotsky argued that as literacy knowledge is jointly comprised, there is an important relationship between thought and language in interaction. I believe is important to include that literacy learning does not happen just in the classroom. Sociocultural theory believes strongly that students learn through participation in sociocultural activities in formal and informal settings. Children s capabilities as literate beings are recognized and legitimized in the classroom and the community (Larson & Marsh, 2005, 106). Within this theory, learning is a social practice, and interaction with others is thought of as an
How Children with Hearing 6 essential learning tool in and out of the classroom. This only helps to reiterate the importance of social interaction for an individual s literacy acquisition. Another theory that informs my definition of literacy is the linguistic theory. The most prominent researcher in this period of thinking was Noam Chomsky who believed that language acquisition was the beginning of literacy acquisition because children come into the world wired to acquire the language of the community into which they were born (Pearson & Stephens, 1992, 25). This social interaction that Chomsky believed begins at birth is essential for a child s literacy acquisition because it happens within the cultural community they are exposed to, and it is acquired, not formally taught (Pearson & Stephens, 1992). The linguistic theory helps to emphasize the importance of primary discourse in an individual s language and literacy acquisition. It is essential to remember that each child has a different primary discourse and a separate cultural and linguistic background that is brought into their classrooms. Cultural and Linguistic Variation and it s Importance in Acquiring Literacy Cultural and linguistic variations play a large role in an individual s literacy acquisition. Heath (1982) discusses different communities and their separate uses of language and literacy, based on each community s cultural ways of knowing. Every individual has a different journey of literacy acquisition based on their culture. According to Heath (1982) the way different individuals and cultures use and learn language in their communities carry implications for their educational success. The general view has been that whatever it is that mainstream schooloriented homes have, these other homes do not have it; thus these children are not from the literate tradition and are not likely to succeed in school (p. 74). As stated in Heath s work, it is important for teachers to take into account a student s linguistic and cultural background and
How Children with Hearing 7 build upon what previous knowledge each student brings into the classroom. Each community has rules for socially interacting and sharing knowledge in literacy events (Heath, 1982, 74). By better understanding a student s linguistic and cultural background, a teacher can create improved lessons for instruction. For teachers who have deaf or hard of hearing students in their classroom, this means studying and learning about Deaf culture and American Sign Language. These two aspects of their culture are extremely important and would help the teachers to better understand and teach their students. Moll and Gonzalez (1994) researched the importance of using the funds of knowledge by gaining insight into a student s family life, linguistic and cultural background. This allowed the teachers to find out what cultural and linguistic history enriched each student s personal life, and therefore better inform their instruction using the interests of that particular student that they learned about. One teacher in particular commented that this research into the student s personal life turned out to be the key which helped me develop strategies to include the knowledge my students were bringing to school in my classroom practice (p. 162). This extra research into the students lives ended up being not only a valuable asset for classroom instruction, but also as a resource for understanding the surrounding community as well. These researchers write, A major limitation of most classroom innovations is that they do not require (or motivate) teachers or students to go beyond the classroom walls to make instruction work. Consequently, sooner or later, the classroom comes under the control of the status quo- in the case of working-class students, the status quo means rote-like, low-level instruction (Moll & Gonzalez, 1994, 168). Delpit (2001) agrees stating, First, teachers must acknowledge and validate students home language without using it to limit students potential (p. 553). Literature Review
How Children with Hearing 8 Understanding Deaf Culture As stated before, it is important to understand students not only for what they bring academically to the classroom, but culturally, ethnically, and historically. As Pagliaro (2001) describes, one of the primary focuses in classrooms today are recognizing and addressing cultural diversity within the classroom. She states, Within this effort for cultural and linguistic appreciation, however, one culture in the United States is often overlooked- the culture of Deaf people (p. 173). Teachers are constantly reminded to address diversity within their classrooms through multicultural books, create units on different cultures and their beliefs. When understanding a students background, their culture is something teachers need to keep in mind. Deaf culture should not be an exception. Identical to any culture, Deaf culture shares a language (American Sign Language or ASL), values, behaviors, and beliefs that identify themselves and shape them as a people. It has also been established for hundreds of years and has their own traditions (Pagliaro, 2001). Within the Deaf culture it is significant to first recognize the difference between being Deaf or deaf. Deaf culture is denoted by the capital D similarly to the way Spanish and Italian are capitalized, to recognize a culture. People who are affiliated and prefer to be part of this culture are identified as being Deaf with a capital D. There are some people with hearing loss who do not identify themselves within the Deaf culture, and therefore prefer to be identified as deaf or hearing impaired, with a lower case d (Pagliaro, 2001). It is imperative that when working with a student who is Deaf or hard of hearing to remember that within the Deaf culture, hearing loss is not seen as a disability as it might be seen to other cultures. In fact, Their hearing loss is viewed not as a disability, but as a difference,
How Children with Hearing 9 similar to skin color. Nothing is broken nor needs to be fixed (p. 174). Although the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act labels hearing impairment as a disability, these students are not to be seen or treated as disabled in any way (Pagliaro, 2001). Deaf culture should be recognized and understood before working with a student who is deaf or has hearing loss. In regards to reading problems, [Deaf] students are faced with unique reading problems; since they do not hear the language, they often fail to understand its subtleties. Many deaf people communicate through sign language which uses hand movements and space to convey ideas. Thus English is a second language and different for some deaf persons to master (Wood & Petz, 1997, 644). In literature and in life, Deaf culture is a Discourse community. If teachers take the time to understand and respect their culture and language, it will help the teacher to understand their backgrounds and how to help students succeed academically. As Pagliaro (2001) explains that it is entirely likely for a general education teacher to have a student who is deaf in their classroom. Inclusive programs are becoming more popular with deaf students spending part or all of the day with their hearing peers. In fact in 1995, the Annual Survey of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children and Youth reported that 70 percent of the deaf children surveyed were with hearing students in local schools (Pagliaro, 2001, pp. 2). With these kinds of statistics, teachers need to become more educated not only with Deaf culture but what the best strategies are to produce deaf students who are effective grade level literacy learners.
How Children with Hearing 10 Severe and Profound Hearing Loss For the purposes of making this article clearer, I believe it is important to explain the different categories of hearing loss. Children with severe hearing loss (70-89 decibel) are unable to hear shouted conversations. A child with what is considered profound hearing loss (> 90 decibel) can sometimes hear loud sounds which might be perceived to the child as vibrations instead of the sound patterns (Goldin-Meadow & Mayberry, 2001). Deaf Students and Language Acquisition Why is literacy difficult for a deaf student? One important reason literacy is so difficult for a deaf child is because American Sign Language (ASL) is their first language and English is their second. (Goldin-Meadow & Mayberry, 2001; Woods & Petz, 1997). The structure of ASL is distinct from the structure of English (Goldin-Meadow & Mayberry, 2001, pp. 223). This makes reading difficult for deaf students who use a manual language and then have to learn a printed language in order to read. The difficulty at which the child is able to pick up even their first language also depends on their environment in which they were raised. As Goldin-Meadow and Mayberry (2001) clarify, there are many differences between the language acquisition of a deaf child born to deaf parents and a deaf child born to hearing parents. A deaf child born to deaf parents grow up with ASL as the primary language. They learn ASL easily, as easily as hearing children learn English (pp. 223). Although these deaf children have the advantage of early and consistent exposure to ASL, as mentioned before, ASL is a unique language, different from English. The bottom line for many deaf children born to deaf parents is that, although they are native (and fluent) users of a language (sign language), that language is not the language they are learning to read (pp. 223).
How Children with Hearing 11 On the other end of the spectrum, a deaf child both to hearing parents have a very different experience growing up as a deaf child born to deaf parents. In fact upwards of ninety percent of all deaf children born in the United States are born to hearing parents. These parents are also, unlikely to be proficient or even exposed to sign language when their child is born or growing up. Due to this statistic, it is safe to say that these deaf children most likely will not be exposed to sign language when they are born (Goldin-Meadow & Mayberry, 2001). In most cases, deaf children are not even identified as having hearing loss until around their first birthday (Briggle, 2005). Hearing parents of a deaf child face more obstacles in helping their child learn a primary language let alone helping them to read. Briggle (2005) writes, This early language deprivation explains the troublesome statistic that 90 percent of deaf children both into homes with only hearing caregivers experience delays in language acquisition compared to hearing children in hearing families and def children in deaf families (pp. 69). These hearing parents often have to learn the language themselves in order to sign to their child, but ASL is not the only system of language that is usually taught to deaf children. Manually Coded English (MCE) is a system of language that involves, a number of different sign systems [that] are synthesized-they borrow signs from ASL and syntactic structure from English. The goal is for children to learn the structure of English, not only through the sound and lip-reading patterns of spoken English but also through the manual patterns of signed English. To foster the development of speech and spoken English, MCE is signed while simultaneously speaking English (Goldin-Meadow & Mayberry, 2001, pp. 223).
How Children with Hearing 12 Although this system of language is logical, many educators find the simultaneous act of signing and speaking at the same time without making a mistake in one of the two systems very difficult. Even deaf children find it hard not to alter the signs in order for them to bear a resemblance to the ASL signs that they are used to (2001). Another problem is that for a deaf child born to a hearing family, their exposure to this system is usually delayed just like their exposure to ASL and they are usually learning from their parents who are novices at the language as well. children who are exposed to a sign language for the first time in late childhood or adolescence turn out to be less proficient sign language users than those exposed from birth [and] the signers they interact with at home are typically neither fluent not proficient (pp. 224). This was corroborated by Briggles (2005) when she states, In families where parents are learning a new language, such as American Sign Language (ASL) or Signed English (SE), with which to communicate with their child, children have a tendency to acquire inconsistent or incorrect linguistic input (pp. 69). Despite all these negative possibilities, research has found that a child learning Manually Coded English can read just as well as their hearing peers. Stewart and Clarke (2003) explain that when helping a deaf or hard of hearing child acquire literacy it is important to get the school involved and have the parent as active participants as well. These authors describe the complexity of the English language and that it is extremely beneficial for the child if the parents, pitch in to help their deaf children learn new words, and they can do this by providing experiences that will expose their children to these words and give them opportunities to use them. Although reading can and does help deaf children acquire new vocabulary, it is the use of words in everyday communication that is
How Children with Hearing 13 most effective in helping during the initial stages of their acquisition of language. (pp. 19) It is not only the parents that need to be active participants in order for a deaf child to acquire language. Stewart and Clarke (2003) illustrate the importance of a deaf child being active participants in their own language. These children need to understand that communication is a function of language and that communication often leads to desirable results. Children often use language for external or internal results. As Stewart and Clarke (2003) explain external can be something like getting a glass of milk or receiving an answer to a question they asked, internal on the other hand can be completing an act that pleases the child because they are mirroring something they have seen their parents do. Seldom, if ever, do children do something that has no purpose or intent (pp. 20). These experiences and use of language will pave the way for literacy acquisition and learning. Another aspect that is important to understand when teaching a deaf child a language is that the earlier these lessons commence the better. Language acquisition becomes more difficult for a child the longer it is postponed. Early interventions are essential because, It has been said that if a child has not acquired a language by the time he reaches ten to twelve years of age, he might never acquire fluency in any language (Stewart & Clarke, 2003). This is especially true of deaf children. It has been found that children who are immersed in sign language since birth are able to make and form signs at six months old. This is months before a hearing child can articulate and speak their first words (Stewart & Clarke, 2003). Differences between ASL and English
How Children with Hearing 14 English and American Sign Language (ASL) are very different languages. ASL is not a spoken language and does not have a written form, however it is considered to be more of a visual-spatial language with the use of its signs (Stewart & Clarke, 2003). Grammatically these languages are vastly different as well. For example, if a sentence is signed in ASL, it is the punctuation at the end that renders it a question or statement, whereas in English it is the words used to make the sentence and the grammar that makes it a question. In ASL it is also important to pick up on the facial cues a signer is using because they will often give facial cues in order to make it clear that a question is being asked (Stewart & Clarke, 2003). Majority of words can be translated into ASL but not the other way around. There are some signs that cannot be matched identically to one English word (Stewart & Clarke, 2003). The visual-spatial nature of sign language makes it a unique and systematic language and one that is distinct from the auditoryvocal pattern of English (pp. 25). Deaf Students and Literacy Due to language barriers, and the difficulties of a deaf child s language acquisition, research indicates that deaf students read at a significantly lower proficiency than their hearing peers (Goldin-Meadow & Mayberry, 2001; Wilson & Hyde, 1997; Mayer, 2007). the median reading level of deaf high school graduates is fourth grade (Goldin-Meadow & Mayberry, 2001, pp. 224). With reading at this lower level, it is hard for deaf students to use the reading process such a comprehension, phonological awareness, decoding, etc. in order to read and understand the text. Stewart and Clarke (2003) argue that parents and teachers should be teaching literacy to deaf and hard of hearing children with the hope of them becoming competent communicators.
How Children with Hearing 15 They explain that, Proficient readers and writers use their knowledge and skills to nurture an ever-expanding ability to communicate more effectively. For deaf and hard of hearing students acquiring literacy holds more importance than academic success. They need to have proficient literacy everyday for such instances as using a teletype (TTY) in order to communicate with others, closed captioning on the TV, online conversations, or something as simple as a shopping list for the grocery store (2003). Acquiring literacy is not only to scaffold their learning through reading and writing, but also their everyday literacy needs. Early interventions for a deaf child increases the child s chance of strengthened literacy abilities (Goldin, Meadow and Mayberry, 2001; Mayer, 2007). Goldin-Meadow and Mayberry (2001) suggest a few interventions that might help to make deaf students better readers. The first intervention being that deaf students need to have knowledge of a primary language such as ASL. The earlier hearing parents of a deaf child can get their child into intervention services in order to learn ASL, in educational programs, and with other deaf students and adults using ASL, the better. This is just the first step. Knowing a language is not the only thing that makes a good reader, but merely a building block. Students also need to have an understanding of the mapping between their language and the text. Learning this relationship is an integral part of the reading process and very important. In the example of deaf children, they need to learn the mapping between American Sign Language and the text. Deaf children are presented with many challenges to overcome when acquiring language and literacy. Stewart and Clarke (2003) present five key challenges for deaf children learning literacy. (1) the acquisition of a large vocabulary, (2) the learning of reading and writing while simultaneously learning English, (3) active participation in the communicative process, (4) the learning of language through usage, and (5) the choice of language (pp. 21).
How Children with Hearing 16 Instructional Approaches/Alternatives Emergent Readers Chaining Chaining is the process in which an educator encourages a deaf student to see the relationship between print and the different signed systems the children know, whether this is ASL or MCE. The teacher finger spells a word and then points to the written word. The educator then uses an initialized sign for this word so that this relationship between text and word is brought to the student s attention. (Goldin-Meadow & Mayberry, 2001). This teaching strategy has been found to be used within residential schools for the deaf, majority of the classrooms being taught by deaf teachers. This does not have to be the case. This strategy could be used in all schools and can be taught by both deaf and hearing teachers. Literacy Activities It has been found that regular literacy activities that hearing students in classrooms experience can be beneficial for deaf students as well. For example, letting the student simply explore different literacy devices: writing, books, drawing, etc. Signed storytelling and writing using invented spelling can be beneficial for younger deaf students (Briggle, 2005). Comprehension Signed English Texts One of the instructional approaches for deaf emergent readers and struggling deaf readers is Signed English Texts. Signed English Texts are books that not only offer signed English
How Children with Hearing 17 pictures, but printed words as well. These books consisted of illustrations, printed text, and graphic representations of signs based on signed English forms (Wilson & Hyde, 1997, 335). These books are beneficial for deaf learners because as Wilson and Hyde (1997) explain, the experience of being read to by teachers or parents is very different situation than for hearing children. Deaf students need to look at the book than look up to recognize the signs or spoken communication of the person reading the book, all at the same time. These texts allow students to see the text and the signed communication all together on the pages of the book. The Signed English Text book is thought to be the most beneficial in reading comprehension as with the pictures on the page, the students would spend less time decoding the words and the text would become more fluent for them. Wilson and Hyde (1997) conducted a small study with deaf students using Signed English Texts and Unmodified Texts. The results showed that the students could better comprehend the Signed English Texts rather than the Unmodified Texts and they facilitated initial reading of the text (pp. 339). The study results also suggested that in regards to processing information, having the signs English pictures with the printed text improves word identification, short-term memory, and recall. The study also suggested that these signed pictures helped the students to decode the words entirely and accurately. This ultimately made the reading fluent and flow better with fewer omission and substitutions. A greater preference for these Signed English Texts was also created among the students. As Wilson and Hyde (1997) explain, this might give teachers an opportunity to heighten deaf students motivation and positive attitude towards reading if they use these books within the classroom for their emergent and struggling readers. Idea Mapping
How Children with Hearing 18 Comprehension is an integral part of the reading process for any young learner. As Wood and Petz (1997) recognize, one aspect of comprehension is the ability to identify and use text structures. Research has shown that readers who are aware of text structures are better able to comprehend expository text and recall appropriate information (Wood & Petz, 1997, 644). One way for students to organize the structure of the text is by using idea mapping. In a second grade classroom, the teacher instructed the students using various idea mapping in order to enhance the student s comprehension. Three maps were introduced in all to the class. The first was a timeline because they were already familiar with it, the second was webbing in help students with cause and effect relationships, and the final map was hierarchical organizer in order to help students visualize top-down relationships. After all of these maps had been introduced and used, the students discussed each map and the different uses of each one. After this was completed, the students were given an expository text and ask to create their own map in order to organize and show the information. Through this study it was discovered that idea mapping does indeed help with the comprehension of deaf students. It was also discovered that it helped in communicating more effectively. This idea mapping was found to even benefit writing, Writing is particularly frustrating for hearing-impaired students because the conventions of language are difficult for them to understand and to internalize (Narr, 1997, 644). Phonological Awareness and Decoding Phonological awareness and phonological coding have been coupled with reading success. A common view is that learning to read for hearing children draws heavily upon spoken language skills, especially phonological awareness (Harris & Moreno, 2006). Due to
How Children with Hearing 19 this view, it has been thought that deaf students who have a good understanding of phonological awareness and phonological coding that they might be able to learn to read similar ways that hearing students do and by developing their knowledge of letter-sound correspondences. It has been found studies that there is a chance that these skills can help with the reading success of deaf students (Harris & Moreno, 2006). So how do educators teach phonological awareness and phonological coding to deaf students? Visual Phonics Visual Phonics is an instructional strategy that allows educators to teach hard of hearing or deaf students decoding skills and phonological skills. Originally created by the parent of a deaf child to help with literacy acquisition, visual phonics consists of, a system of 45 hand and symbol cues that represent the phonemes of spoken English [that] has been used for over 20 years (Narr, 2008, pp. 405). Visual phonics uses a hand and written symbol in order to visually simulate the way a phoneme is verbally formed in the English language. As Narr (2008) clarifies in her article, when a hearing child is checked for phonological awareness during the reading process it usually includes specific phonemic awareness abilities having to do with sound: sound identification, sound segmenting, sound blending, and sound manipulation. Of particular importance is Rhyming ability [because] it is an often used technique to determine an individual s sensitivity to the phonological (or sound based) properties of English (pp. 405). Narr (2008) describes how researchers have found a correlation between phonological awareness/focused phonic instruction and reading ability in deaf students. The study consisted of 10 deaf or hard of hearing students from Kindergarten to third grade. This study was created in order to examine the relationship between performance on a
How Children with Hearing 20 phonological awareness task, performance on a decoding task, reading ability, and length of time instructed with visual phonics (Narr, 2008, 406). The educators used visual phonics in order to teach phonemic awareness and phonics. Visual phonics was used along with regular reading materials in the classroom. Visual phonics was not only limited to being in the taught timeallotted for reading but also for spelling and vocabulary as it was helpful teaching the students sounding out strategies. Phonological awareness was measured by using a rhyme/picture task. There were ultimately three pictures, each on a page of a test book. One was the target picture above and two pictures were below. One was the rhyme, and one was the distracter. The student had to look at the target picture and pick which word rhymed. As for the decoding task, the student had to choose the set of symbols that correctly represented with the picture. Similarly to the phonological awareness research, there were distracters during the study. For the decoding task the distracters were different phonemes, either the beginning, middle, or end phoneme. The student had to pick the correct set of symbols out of four. The result of the study is that it is believed visual phonics would increase both the decoding and phonological awareness abilities of deaf and hard of hearing learners. Visual phonics provides visual, tactile, and kinesthetic support for phoneme perception, without the need for hearing or articulation (Narr, 2008, 414). This makes visual phonics a very likely teaching approach for portions of the reading process to deaf and hard of hearing students. Although visual phonics has been found to strengthen phonological awareness and decoding, and therefore reading achievement in students with hearing impairments, it cannot be used by any teacher in any classroom. In order to teach visual phonics, teachers need to be trained by professionals for multiple hours. It works best if coupled with American Sign Language.
How Children with Hearing 21 Methods Context There are two target locations for this research. The first is on the campus of an accredited graduate institution in western, New York. This graduate institution is not only known for its undergraduate and graduate programs, but also for having an accredited institute for the deaf on campus. On the school s campus this particular school has over 1,000 deaf or hard of hearing students. This campus is very diverse with students from all over the country and various foreign countries. The rest of the data was collected through interviews. I interviewed each participant through email at their convenience. The amount of questions ranged from seven to fifteen. Each was personalized to their experience with the topic. Participants The target participants were chosen for distinct reasons and purposes relating to the study. Two deaf graduate students were selected due to their success in academics. Adam and Walter are both students at the graduate institution in western, New York. Adam was also asked to participate because he has been a close friend for four years. Adam is a 22 year old deaf Caucasian male. Adam is a Master s degree candidate in Mathematics. His parents are both hearing, and learned ASL about a year after he was born. His family including siblings and grandparents also learned sign language so that he was able to sign with them when he was younger. He had a basic knowledge of both English and ASL when he was around three years old. Adam actually remembers going to some of the ASL classes with his parents as a toddler. When he was older he had a couple of deaf mentors and friends who taught him proper ASL grammar instead of only vocabulary.
How Children with Hearing 22 Walter is a Master s degree candidate in science and technology. Both of these participants were selected due to their higher educational background. Walter will be interviewed through email. He will asked questions regarding his background, academics, and success with literacy. Walter is a 24 year old, Caucasian male graduate student. Both of his parents are hearing. His aunt went to Gallaudet for a year and was a Teacher for the Deaf before Walter was born. His entire immediate family learned sign language because of this, so Walter was fortunate to grow up with an older brother who was fluent in sign language. The range of sign language he was immersed in was beginner to experienced in American Sign Language. Walter learned English starting from age three to six months. Walter learned Signed English and did not learn American Sign Language until high school and college. His parents began his literacy education at an early age. His family would encourage reading whatever materials he chose including reading a dictionary at one time. When he became school aged, Walter was mainstreamed into a hearing classroom. Walter experienced the same type of literacy education as when he was home. He was immersed into reading and writing, allowing the reading material to be his choice. His teachers also allowed him to be creative and write whatever he wanted, including personal stories and experiences. He stated that not inhibiting his freedom to explore his own expressions was crucial. At home Walter was able to communicate in Sign Language rather than communicating using speech. The third participant is Adam s mother, Polly. Adam s mother is a 54 year old hearing Caucasian female. Polly was chosen to participate in this study because it allows the researcher to better understand the type of upbringing and education Adam received when he was younger. The fourth participant is an interpreter for a graduate institution in western, New York. She is a 49 year old Caucasian female. She has interpreted for seven years and has interpreted
How Children with Hearing 23 for Adam for five years, including his four years at an undergraduate institution and now for one of his classes at his graduate school. Researcher Stance I am currently a Master s degree candidate in Literacy Education at St. John Fisher College in Rochester, New York. I currently have my initial certification in Elementary Education. In this study I will be an observer and interviewer. Method Adam was observed during his classes at his graduate institution. This observation was during his two classes, Advanced Differential Equations and Methods of Applied Math both for two hours each. There were interpreters for both classes, because the majority of the class population is hearing. The main focus of this observation is how literacy is being used in the classroom and what literacy strategies the student is partaking in. I was also looking at the teaching strategies and styles of these teachers and I took notice to how they are involving or helping the hearing impaired student. Adam was also interviewed through email about his educational background, language acquisition as a child, and what he believed made his literacy education so successful. Walter was interviewed through email about his education and language acquisition. He was also questioned about the positive and negative aspects of his education as a child. Both he and Adam were asked what they would change about deaf education for future hearing impaired students.
How Children with Hearing 24 Polly was interviewed through email for this study. The questions consisted of various questions about the home life, background of Adam and his literacy learning such as what teaching strategies were used in and out of school, who taught him to read and use sign language, etc. Heather was interviewed through email. The questions were regarding the difference between English and ASL in regards to grammar, questions about lag time, and effective education for deaf or hard of hearing students. In order to ensure anonymity all the names of the participants are changed to pseudonyms. Any artifacts received during data collection will remove any identify marks. Formal consent forms were given to two of the participants to sign, the rest were collected through email. Data Collection In order to collect data from the participants I used observations, field notes, interviews in the form of questionnaires, and audio recording. There were a total of four interviews from two deaf graduate students, an interpreter, and the mother of one of the deaf graduate students. The observations were conducted during Adam s classes for four hours. During this time field notes were taken on how literacy was used within the classroom. I observed Adam during his two math classes at his graduate institution for a total of four hours. Each class was approximately two hours. The first class I observed was Advanced Differential Equations met in the morning from 10am to 12pm. The second class was Methods of Applied Math which met from 6pm to 8pm. These classes meet two days a week.
How Children with Hearing 25 Findings and Discussion The first class was constructed of roughly fifteen students, the professor, and two interpreters. The interpreters would often take turns after about a half an hour in order give the other a break. Due to the class s content, it met in a large computer room with a whiteboard at positioned at the front of the class. This room was also equipped with a projection screen hooked up to the professor s computer. Adam chose a computer in the second row of the computer section on the left side. He chose the computer that was located close to the middle of the room but on the end near the aisle. This gave him an unobstructed view of the interpreters. Both the professor and the interpreters stood at the front of the class. The first class was a lecture based class. The professor used the whiteboard continuously to write down notes and explain the equations to the class. The class wrote down these notes as the professor was writing them down on the board. The Role of the Interpreter As the professor was teaching, the interpreter stood to the right of the professor and stayed next to him so that Adam was able to watch the professor and see the interpreter clearly. As the professor moved, the interpreter did as well in order to stay near the professor. The professor spoke in a fast manner, which made it difficult for Adam to take notes and watch the interpreter at the same time so as not to miss valuable information. The interpreter generally had significant lag time between the professor s lecture in English and the information she was able to sign and interpret for Adam. Any time Adam looked down to take notes, the teacher was still speaking, so the interpreter had to retain what she considered to be important content and then interpret it to Adam when he looked up again. The teacher generally had his back to the
How Children with Hearing 26 class as he wrote down the various equations. During this time Adam looked at the interpreter for what was being said. When the professor took a short pause, the interpreters switched. After this switch of the interpreters, it was clear the general differences between the two interpreters. The first interpreter used more facial expressions to better explain the tone of voice used by the professor or the importance of what was being said. The second interpreter used barely any expression and used fewer signs overall. When lag time presented itself to the second interpreter she would simply pick up the content when Adam looked up. Both classes had expanded mathematical vocabularies, which caused some delay if the interpreters were not sure of the spelling when having to fingerspell the terms to Adam. Many of the vocabulary included Greek terms. When one of the interpreters was not sure of the mathematical term or vocabulary they would often seek help from the other interpreter. For the majority of the time, the communication with the interpreter was constant. In the second class, there were more questions asked and the interpreter would point to the individual talking and relay the question and answer to Adam. The professor in this class had a lighter personality and often joked with the students. The interpreter had to change the facial expressions to portray this and also the sign for laughing if the students laughed. There were whiteboards on each of the classroom walls. The second class was primarily lecture and note based class. The professor stood at the front of the room and the interpreter was to the left of the professor. The teacher wrote all of the equations on the board. After a while, the professor decided instead to move to the other whiteboards on the adjacent walls. The interpreter moved quickly with the professor to each spot so as not to break the interpretation of the equations. Adam had to rely more heavily on the interpreters for clarification of the notes because some of
How Children with Hearing 27 the notes he could not read due to his location in the room. There again was some lag time during what the professor was saying and the signs the interpreter was able to sign to Adam. Note-taking Skills Adam wrote down everything that was clearly written on the board. In order to make things clearer he would also write down full sentences to remind himself of the specific content. Adam would also occasionally use bullets in order to make his notes more organized. Although Adam has someone who takes notes for him in both of his classes, he feels confident taking the notes in both his classes in the event that he records something the note taker has not. Similar to this first class, the second professor wrote a large amount of notes on the board and when he ran out of space, erased the previous notes. This made it hard for Adam to refer to these equations later if needed. Multitasking These classes required Adam to multitask while learning. He had to take a large amount of notes, watch the professors, and also watch the interpreters. If a classmate asked a question, the interpreter would point to the direction of the student so Adam would see why the lesson was paused, and the interpreter would sign the question and answer by the professor. If the student or professor spoke too softly, the interpreter would orally ask the student to repeat so that she was able to interpret the comment or question correctly to Adam. The interpreter also needed some clarification for the content regarding what certain mathematical symbols meant or their impact in the equation/graph. When Adam asked a question he would raise his hand. Both questions were regarding clarification of the content. He started both questions by saying, I missed one
How Children with Hearing 28 part because I was writing. The teacher had erased the notes before Adam had time to finish writing. Student Advocacy When the time of this class was coming to an end, the teacher directed the lesson to computer use. The directions of how to access the program was complex and Adam needed clarification of the specific items to click on. Due to it being shown step by step on the projection screen there was not a lot of signing during this part of the class. Adam had to ask questions on how exactly to get to the program he needed to use. These questions and answers were interpreted. The night class was structured differently from the first class. The tables were all circular and seated about four to five students per table. The class make-up included about twenty students, the professor, and two interpreters. Adam chose to sit at the middle circular table at the front of the room. Role of the Family Adam s mother, Polly, is hearing and said she was suspicious of Adam s hearing loss from birth; however, around six months, the family became concerned enough to push for some answers. Adam was tested, identified, and accepted into special education programs by eight months of age. At nine months of age, Adam was receiving early intervention services at home from a Teacher of the Deaf. Adam also began to wear small hearing aids at this time. Adam received a lot of encouragement from his parents to read more and more. Adam often used Signed English books to read. His favorite was Where s Spot by Eric Hill. These
How Children with Hearing 29 books were often signed to him as well by family members. His mother also helped to correct and edit some of his writing materials in elementary and middle school as this was a struggle for Adam. Both of Adam s and Walter s parents are hearing. Adam s family decided to learn sign language in order to help him communicate. Due to Walter s aunt, the Teacher of the Deaf at Gallaudet, some of his family members already knew sign language. Upon both of the family s efforts, Adam and Walter were fortunate to grow up in family s that were modeling the type of communication and language they were to acquire. Institutional Support Adam s mother, Polly described that the average age of identification in their home state was around six years of age, when students were beginning school. She explained that the school district did not yet require early intervention and special education services to their preschool population. It was very rare for the school district to provide services from the age range of birth to three. In their family s case, the special education director committed to providing services for Alex and contracted out for the personnel needed to make it a reality. Similarly, a Teacher of the Deaf planned, consulted, designed, and supplemented as needed when Adam went into a hearing program. Speech was usually taught before or after his morning schooling, since preschool and kindergarten were half day programs. When Adam was little, he attended a preschool four mornings a week that had a Teacher of the Deaf instructor, a deaf teaching assistant, and a regular preschool curriculum all completed in sign. This team of educators plus a speech teacher and interpreter met with Polly weekly to review that week s progress and plan for the next week. This school provided Adam with a large