Update on anesthetic management for esophagectomy Ju-Mei Ng

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Update on anesthetic management for esophagectomy Ju-Mei Ng Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Brigham and Women s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA Correspondence to Ju-Mei Ng, Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Brigham and Women s Hospital, 75 Francis Street, Boston, MA 02115, USA Tel: +1 617 732 8219; fax: +1 617 732 6798; e-mail: jng1@partners.org Current Opinion in Anesthesiology 2011, 24:37 43 Purpose of review The article highlights the current important issues surrounding the anesthetic care of patients presenting for esophagectomy. Recent findings With the decline in mortality from esophagectomy in high-volume centers over the last 30 years, focus may now be on decreasing morbidity. Improving the blood supply of the esophageal anastomosis, methods to reduce the incidence of pulmonary complications and optimizing fluid management in these patients are areas in which anesthetic care may contribute. There are also the potential benefits of minimally invasive techniques, which are increasingly being utilized. Summary The incorporation of thoracic epidural analgesia, goal-directed fluid management therapy, protective ventilation during one-lung anesthesia and strategies to improve perfusion of the gastric graft are some aspects which anesthetic care may impact. Keywords anesthesia, esophagectomy, operative management Curr Opin Anesthesiol 24:37 43 ß 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health Lippincott Williams & Wilkins 0952-7907 Introduction Whereas overall mortality from esophagectomy has declined over the last 30 years to 8 11%, morbidity may reach 40 50% [1,2]. Anastomotic and cardiopulmonary complications contribute the majority of perioperative morbidity and mortality. Improvement in outcome may be achieved by appropriate risk assessment and patient selection, choice of surgical techniques and their execution, and optimizing perioperative care. Perioperative management of the esophagectomy patient has been previously addressed [3]. This review will concentrate on anastomotic leak (the most common surgical complication) and pulmonary morbidity, and the anesthetic factors that may influence these outcomes, including fluid management, the use of vasopressors and maintenance of conduit perfusion, and thoracic epidural analgesia (TEA). The impact of minimally invasive techniques will also be discussed, and recent studies that may affect outcome highlighted. Anastomotic complications and perfusion of the gastric conduit The incidence of cervical anastomotic complications varies from 15 to 37% [1,2]. Thoracic anastomoses have a lower leak rate but higher morbidity and mortality. Briel et al. [4] documented a conduit ischemia or anastomotic leak rate of up to 10% that accounted for 37% of all hospital deaths after esophagectomy. The configuration of the reconstructions (neoesophagus) predisposes to inadequate blood supply to the furthest position of the conduit, with relative ischemia of the conduit at the anastomotic site. This ischemia is thought to play a role in the sequelae of esophagogastric and esophagocolonic anastomotic leaks in 3 25% of cases [5]. Wound-tissue oxygenation is dependent on vascular anatomy, vasomotor control and arterial tissue oxygen pressure. The fundamental principal is maintenance of adequate perfusion to the anastomosis. Various variables may contribute to anastomotic complications (including technical aspects and patient comorbidities), and some methods are being investigated to improve blood supply in order to reduce the leak rate and subsequent morbidity [6]. Proposed mechanism/technique for improvement of conduit microvascular blood flow include the following: (1) Interaction with local gastric vasomotor tone: (i) Thoracic epidural anesthesia, (ii) Prostaglandins. (2) Reduction of venous congestion: (i) Pharmacological, for example topical or intravenous nitroglycerin, (ii) Surgical interventions, for example venous blood letting. 0952-7907 ß 2011 Wolters Kluwer Health Lippincott Williams & Wilkins DOI:10.1097/ACO.0b013e32834141f7

38 Thoracic anesthesia (3) Supercharging the anastomosis of arteries and veins. (4) Ischemic preconditioning of the conduit: (i) Preoperative disruption of conduit blood supply prior to definitive procedure by angiographic embolization, surgery or infusion of vasoactive substances. Further studies of these strategies are needed to establish their efficacy and safety for routine use. Thoracic epidural analgesia Thoracic epidural analgesia is associated with a decreased occurrence of anastomotic leakage [7], improved microcirculation of the distal gastric tube in an experimental model [8] and microvascular perfusion of the gastric conduit in the anastomotic area after esophagectomy [9]. However, aggressive bolus dosing of the epidural with local anesthetic was found to decrease flux at the anastomotic end of the gastric tube when systolic arterial pressure decreased by 30% of baseline [10]. Gastric flux returned to baseline with an epinephrine infusion. As TEA has many other advantages in esophagectomy patients, it is important to incorporate it into the care of these patients, maximize its potential benefits while being attentive to its shortcomings. Measured bolus dosing with a more dilute concentration of local anesthetic, avoidance of hypovolemia and the judicious use of vasopressors are commonly used methods to achieve this goal. Perfusion pressure It is believed that the use of vasopressors may be deleterious to the perfusion of gastrointestinal anastomoses [11] and associated with an increased risk of gastrointestinal anastomotic leakage [12]. Animal studies have demonstrated that vasopressor-induced constriction of the splanchnic vessels may lead to shunting of the microcirculation and local hypoxia [13,14]. Specific to gastric graft perfusion in esophagectomy, the administration of a norepinephrine infusion to restore blood pressure was associated with severe graft hypoperfusion [11] and systemic arterial hypotension induced by local anesthetic bolus decreased flux at the anastomosis [10]. In the study by Theodorou et al. [11] norepinephrine was administered in a hemorrhage model, which naturally adversely affects microcirculation. On the contrary, when the blood pressure decrease caused by local anesthetic bolus was restored by an epinephrine infusion, flux at the anastomotic end of the gastric tube was restored [10]. Systemic arterial hypotension compromises gastric tube tissue perfusion and must be avoided. The use of vasoconstrictive substances under normovolemic conditions has no detrimental effect on gastric microvascular blood flow [15 ], and the intraoperative use of short-acting Key points Anesthetic care may contribute to reduction in morbidity by the incorporation of thoracic epidural analgesia, goal-directed fluid management and protective ventilation during one-lung anesthesia. The fundamentals for maintenance of perfusion pressure to the conduit and prevention of aspiration are emphasized. Modification of the inflammatory response may be key to improving outcome. vasopressors, phenylephrine or ephedrine, has no association with postoperative anastomotic leak [12]. Vasopressors can be safely used to maintain systemic perfusion pressure during esophagectomy when hypovolemia is excluded. This may be beneficial for gastric conduit tissue perfusion when the blood pressure decrease is due to surgical manipulation or epidural administration. However, occult hypovolemia should always be excluded, as it is uncommon for prolonged vasopressor requirement in elective esophagectomy. Minimally invasive esophagectomy Minimally invasive esophagectomy (MIE) is being increasingly used for surgical management of esophageal cancer. The techniques vary from entirely minimally invasive to hybrid procedures in which either the thoracic or the abdominal part of the operation is performed endoscopically. Two recent meta-analyses observed trends in favor of MIE for major morbidity, pulmonary complications, length of ICU/hospital stay and blood loss [16,17]. However, case-control studies were included, with inherent selection and design bias. Nevertheless, studies collectively point towards improved short-term outcomes after MIE with comparable cancer outcomes. It is also uncertain if the inflammatory response associated with esophagectomy is reduced by the use of a more minimally invasive approach. A recent study suggests that laparoscopic-assisted gastric tube reconstruction attenuated postoperative systemic inflammatory response (SIR) [18]. More controlled prospective studies are needed to establish superiority of MIE over the open procedure. This may not be viable as more centers embark on minimally invasive approaches and large numbers of patients would be required to study the end points of interest. The only prospective multicenter study of 99 MIE reported a 2% 30-day mortality, 4.9% incidence of pneumonia and 7.8% anastomotic leak [19]. Results appear promising. The anesthetic implications of MIE [20] include longer operative times, with perhaps longer duration of one-lung ventilation (OLV), possibly prone positioning during

Update on anesthetic management for esophagectomy Ng 39 thoracoscopic mobilization of the esophagus and use of TEA. Fluid management The task of balancing perfusion pressure and oxygen delivery to vital organs and the gut mucosa, and the prevention of excessive fluid accumulation that may delay recovery of gastrointestinal function, impair wound and/or anastomotic healing, coagulation, cardiac and respiratory function is challenging [21 25]. There is a growing literature comparing liberal with restrictive fluid management, many demonstrating better outcomes in fluid-restricted patients [21 23,26,27]. Patients who received restricted fluid regimen in major gastrointestinal surgery showed better gastrointestinal recovery time [21 23], reduced overall morbidity [21 23,27] and improved respiratory parameters [22,26]. In an experimental model, intraoperative crystalloid fluid overload compromised anastomotic stability of small bowel anastomoses [28]. This study showed a direct negative impact of fluid overload on function and structure of the ileo-ileal anastomosis, which may have deleterious effects on anastomotic healing and postoperative complications. The two studies specific to esophagectomy were relatively small, nonrandomized case series [26,29]. Kita et al.[26] found that restricting intraoperative fluids reduced postoperative pulmonary complications and shortened the recovery period. Neal et al.[29] reported a reduction in esophagectomy-related morbidity with standardized multimodal management that included TEA, early extubation and more accurately avoidance of excessive volume infusion (mean crystalloid infusion of 4 l). A positive perioperative fluid balance was associated with adverse surgical outcomes in patients after transthoracic esophagectomy or esophagogastrectomy [30]. The exact definition of volume restriction, different fluid regimens and end points used in studies make it difficult to derive guidelines regarding perioperative fluid therapy. Avoidance of fluid overload seems to be the key to better postoperative outcome. The potential for acute lung injury (ALI) during OLV and high incidence of pulmonary complications during esophagectomy makes it imperative that fluid therapy be optimized to avoid exacerbation of ALI. Perhaps goal-directed therapy, with individual maximization of flow-related hemodynamic parameters, which showed reduced hospital stay, postoperative nausea and vomiting, and faster gastrointestinal recovery in various major surgery [31], should be applied during esophagectomy. As the esophageal Doppler, which has acquired a strong evidence base of outcome data [32], is impractical in esophagectomy, another minimally invasive hemodynamic monitoring method should be employed. The pulse contour cardiac output system to evaluate lung water postesophagectomy was found to be a useful parameter of respiratory function and predictive of pulmonary complications [33,34]. Arterial pressure variationguided fluid management has been reviewed recently [35 ]. Results are encouraging although further studies are required to draw any conclusions. The FloTrach/ Vigileo system (Edwards Lifesciences, Irving, CA) was an accurate predictor of intravascular hypovolemia and improved hemodynamic stability postoperatively in two small studies involving esophagectomy patients [36,37]. Another study in major abdominal surgery concluded that it was not a reliable predictor of fluid responsiveness [38]. Potential limits to its usefulness or accuracy during esophagectomy include lung compliance and intrathoracic pressure variations during positioning changes, laparoscopy and intra-abdominal pressure, the open chest, ventilatory settings [tidal volume and positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP)] during two and OLV, and its use restricted to the intraoperative period if patients are extubated at the end of surgery. Moreover, no outcome data are available. The impact of goaldirected therapy and ideal device for the monitoring of preload dependence during esophagectomy still remains to be investigated. The choice of crystalloids versus colloids as intraoperative fluid therapy and its effect on intestinal anastomotic healing is debatable. Goal-directed therapy during major abdominal surgery showed better recovery of gastrointestinal function and decreased complications [31]. Interestingly, the treatment group received more colloids compared to controls. This was not the aim of the study, but rather a result of the study design. Colloids appeared to have benefits on intestinal anastomotic healing when compared to similar volume crystalloid infusion in an experimental model [39 ]. In animal models, goaldirected colloid therapy, not goal-directed crystalloid therapy or restricting crystalloids, increased intestinal microcirculatory blood flow and tissue oxygen tension after abdominal surgery [40,41]. Another study in the rat model found no difference in anastomotic healing indices between colloid and saline replacement therapy [42]. Perhaps only a goal-directed approach with the appropriate fluid according to type of fluid loss/deficit can improve outcome [43]. Pulmonary morbidity Pulmonary complications are frequent and are the most common cause of postoperative death in esophageal cancer patients [44 46]. Various patient factors (age, performance status, lung function) and perioperative

40 Thoracic anesthesia events (duration of surgery and OLV, fluid management, anastomotic leak) have been found to influence pulmonary morbidity and/or ALI [44 49]. The cause appears to be multifactorial, and it may take a combination of different approaches to achieve a reduction in overall pulmonary complications [50 ]. One-lung ventilation Robust inflammatory responses accompany esophagectomy, and may be related to the development of ALI [51 53]. OLV results in an inflammatory response; the period of OLV and surgical manipulation aggravates the alveolar injury and increases leukocyte recruitment in the dependent lung. Alveolar recruitment and accompanying reexpansion/reperfusion lung injury adds further insult [54 56]. The clinical significance of each independent factor on perioperative morbidity after esophagectomy is unclear, but lung protective ventilatory strategies should be employed. These include 5 6 ml/kg tidal volume, optimizing PEEP (setting PEEP above the lower inflection point), limiting plateau and peak inspiratory pressures to less than 25 cmh 2 O and less than 35 cmh 2 O, respectively [57]. Protective ventilation (tidal volume of 5 ml/kg and 5 cmh 2 O of PEEP) during OLV in a piglet model resulted in reduced inflammatory cytokines in the plasma and lung tissue [58] and a similar result was found in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients during OLV with tidal volume of 5 ml/kg compared to 10 ml/ kg [59]. Utilizing smaller tidal volumes and PEEP during OLV was associated with a decrease in the proinflammatory response after esophagectomy, improved lung function, and earlier extubation [48]. Type of anesthetic Volatile anesthetic have been shown to produce dose and time-dependent immunomodulatory effects; however, studies comparing volatiles with propofol during thoracic surgery and OLV are conflicting. Desflurane [60] and sevoflurane [61] produced attenuated pulmonary inflammatory responses compared to propofol, with a reduction on overall number of adverse events [61]. However, the duration of surgery and OLV was longer in the propofol group, and this has been shown to be a risk factor for pulmonary morbidity [44,47]. On the contrary, sevoflurane was found to cause a greater proinflammatory response than propofol during thoracic surgery [62]. Although the patient population was similar, differences in the time of exposure and OLV, specimen collection method, site(s) and timing, and laboratory techniques do limit comparison of results. Furthermore, the inflammatory response associated with OLV in transthoracic esophagectomy is complex, with a more pronounced response on the ventilated side and the time courses of both sides significantly different [63 ]. Pulmonary complications or anastomotic leakage were also not related to the cytokine concentrations. Therefore the contribution of type of anesthetic to the inflammatory response during esophagectomy and clinical outcome remains unknown. Thoracic epidural analgesia In esophagectomy, TEA provides superior pain relief [64,65], reduces pulmonary complications [66,67], and plays a central role in a multimodal approach or standardized perioperative clinical pathway, which has shown improved outcomes [29,68,69]. No epidural analgesia was an independent risk factor for pneumonia and TEA was the key factor that facilitated immediate or early postoperative tracheal extubation [67]. There are no specific comparative studies of TEA in open versus MIE, although it was found to reduce the risk of in-hospital death during MIE in one study [70]. It would therefore appear rational to continue utilizing TEA in MIE. Prevention of tracheal aspiration Following esophagectomy, patients are prone to episodes of reflux into the remaining proximal esophagus and pharynx as many of the mechanisms that prevent acid reflux are disrupted or absent [71 73]. The lower esophageal sphincter is excised, the stomach is denervated and paralysis of the recurrent laryngeal nerve is often observed [74]. Routine postoperative nasogastric decompression of the gastric conduit for protection against aspiration and to decrease the risk of anastomotic leak from distensioninduced gastric conduit ischemia may itself lead to impaired hypopharyngeal function, patient discomfort, a predisposition to sinusitis, pharyngitis and pneumonia, and may directly lead to perforation [73,75 77]. Gastric conduit decompression after esophagectomy can be achieved safely with a pharyngostomy tube [78] or transcervically [79]. This method has been found to be durable, promote patient comfort and mobility, and has a low incidence of complications. Recent investigations Results of some recent studies of interest are given in the following sections. Cardiovascular morbidity Arrhythmias are common perioperatively. Although majority are benign, symptomatic arrhythmias may be associated with worse outcome [80 82]. Atrial fibrillation has been linked with pulmonary complications and anastomotic leakage with subsequent hemodynamic instability [80]. In a randomized controlled trial of 80 patients undergoing transthoracic esophagectomy, prophylactic administration of intravenous amiodarone significantly reduced the incidence of atrial fibrillation [83 ]. However, this did not relate to reduced ICU or hospital

Update on anesthetic management for esophagectomy Ng 41 stay. The incidence of myocardial infarction after esophagectomy is 1 2% [44,45]. Results from the POISE trial [84] and a recent meta-analysis [85] do not support the use of beta-blockers for the prevention of cardiovascular outcome in low or intermediate-risk noncardiac surgery. Inflammatory response The inflammatory response elicited during esophagectomy has been implicated in the development of postoperative complications, particularly respiratory morbidity. Modification of this inflammatory response with a perioperative administration of steroids, prostaglandin E 1, or a protease inhibitor may be useful. A reduction in hypercytokinemia, improved postoperative oxygenation and shortened SIR were reported [86 88]. There was no difference in morbidity or mortality. A metaanalysis involving the administration of intravenous methylprednisolone to decrease the inflammatory response to esophageal resection found quality problems with seven of the eight trials [89]. Larger prospective randomized studies are required. Conclusion Utilization of TEA, goal-directed fluid therapy, maintenance of perfusion pressure, protective ventilation during OLV, and prevention of aspiration are some approaches to reduce pulmonary complications and prevent anastomotic leak. Future research should focus on the modification of the inflammatory response in an effort to improve outcome. References and recommended reading Papers of particular interest, published within the annual period of review, have been highlighted as: of special interest of outstanding interest Additional references related to this topic can also be found in the Current World Literature section in this issue (p. 112). 1 Chang AC, Ji H, Birkmeyer NJ, et al. Outcomes after transhiatal and transthoracic esophagectomy for cancer. Ann Thorac Surg 2008; 85:424 429. 2 Connors RC, Reuben BC, Neumayer LA, Bull DA. Comparing outcomes after transthoracic and transhiatal esophagectomy: a 5-year prospective cohort of 17,395 patients. J Am Coll Surg 2007; 205:735 740. 3 Ng JM. Perioperative anesthetic management for esophagectomy. Anesthesiol Clin 2008; 26:293 304. 4 Briel JW, Tamhankar AP, Hagen JA, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for ischemia, leak, and stricture of esophageal anastomosis: gastric pull-up versus colon interposition. J Am Coll Surg 2004; 198:536 541; discussion 541 532. 5 Reavis KM. The esophageal anastomosis: how improving blood supply affects leak rate. J Gastrointest Surg 2009; 13:1558 1560. 6 Enestvedt CK, Thompson SK, Chang EY, Jobe BA. Clinical review: healing in gastrointestinal anastomoses, part II. Microsurgery 2006; 26:137 143. 7 Michelet P, D Journo XB, Roch A, et al. Perioperative risk factors for anastomotic leakage after esophagectomy: influence of thoracic epidural analgesia. Chest 2005; 128:3461 3466. 8 Lazar G, Kaszaki J, Abraham S, et al. Thoracic epidural anesthesia improves the gastric microcirculation during experimental gastric tube formation. Surgery 2003; 134:799 805. 9 Michelet P, Roch A, D Journo XB, et al. Effect of thoracic epidural analgesia on gastric blood flow after oesophagectomy. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2007; 51:587 594. 10 Al-Rawi OY, Pennefather SH, Page RD, et al. The effect of thoracic epidural bupivacaine and an intravenous adrenaline infusion on gastric tube blood flow during esophagectomy. Anesth Analg 2008; 106:884 887. 11 Theodorou D, Drimousis PG, Larentzakis A, et al. The effects of vasopressors on perfusion of gastric graft after esophagectomy. An experimental study. J Gastrointest Surg 2008; 12:1497 1501. 12 Zakrison T, Nascimento BA Jr, Tremblay LN, et al. 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Effect of salt and water balance on recovery of gastrointestinal function after elective colonic resection: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2002; 359:1812 1818. 22 Brandstrup B, Tonnesen H, Beier-Holgersen R, et al. Effects of intravenous fluid restriction on postoperative complications: comparison of two perioperative fluid regimens: a randomized assessor-blinded multicenter trial. Ann Surg 2003; 238:641 648. 23 Nisanevich V, Felsenstein I, Almogy G, et al. Effect of intraoperative fluid management on outcome after intraabdominal surgery. Anesthesiology 2005; 103:25 32. 24 Joshi GP. Intraoperative fluid restriction improves outcome after major elective gastrointestinal surgery. Anesth Analg 2005; 101:601 605. 25 Holte K, Sharrock NE, Kehlet H. Pathophysiology and clinical implications of perioperative fluid excess. Br J Anaesth 2002; 89:622 632. 26 Kita T, Mammoto T, Kishi Y. 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