Motivation What is motivation? Motivation represents the reasons for people's actions, desires, and needs. Reasons here implies some sort of desired end state Typically, this unit is described as a goal Motivation can also be defined as the direction, intensity, and persistence of behaviors. Typically, we define behaviors here as goal relevant behaviors (i.e., behaviors that move you towards a goal). Motives the unit of motivation -- what prompts a person to act in a certain way.
Instinct Theories of Motivation What does it mean to be motivated? William James: Motives are genetically determined instincts, which evolved because they support survival and procreation. List of 35 different innate instincts E.g., love, fight, imitate, talk, and acquire things Obvious problems: A long list of instincts. How can we determine if these are truly inborn? Many so-called instincts result from learning (i.e., are not innate)
Drive-Reduction Theories of Motivation Motivation stems from the desire to reduce an internal state (i.e., a drive ) Drives occur when our needs are not fulfilled. Primary drives (e.g., food, water, warmth) motivate us to maintain certain bodily processes at an internal state of equilibrium (i.e., homeostasis). To achieve homeostasis, organisms actively defend certain values known as set points. i.e., Thresholds (e.g., body temperature @ 98.6 Degrees F)
Drive-Reduction Theories of Motivation Normally, we carefully regulate variables like body temperature, fluid levels, and body weight around such thresholds. Deviations from thresholds stimulate behavior to reestablish the original values. Behavior E.g., Deviation from Threshold ( I am hungry ) => Without the motivation from drives, homeostasis would be challenging» e.g., How would we know when to eat, sleep, drink etc.?
Drive-Reduction Theories of Motivation What causes a drive state in the first place? Primary drives begin in the body when the brain recognizes that we are lacking in some biological need. E.g., Food The brain recognizes need based on the feedback that it receives from the body s systems and organs. E.g., Physiological reactions to hunger. What facilitates this? Negative Feedback Loops
Drive-Reduction Theories of Motivation Negative feedback loops are information systems that monitor the level of a bodily process and adjust it up or down accordingly. Work like a thermostat. You set the thermostat at a desired level. The thermostat monitors the air temperature and compares it to that set level. If the room gets too cold, the heater turns on; if the room gets too warm, the heater turns off.
Primary and Secondary Drives Drive reduction theories make a great deal of sense for relatively basic physiological processes. E.g., Primary drives => fulfillment of biological needs => survival. Can drives explain some of our other motivations? E.g., Wanting to do well in school?
Primary and Secondary Drives Secondary drives Drives that motivate us to perform behaviors that are not directly related to biological needs. Developed through learning and experience. Move us beyond basic survival needs. Help us navigate complex social worlds. E.g., The basic motive for achievement (i.e., motivation to be successful). E.g., The basic motive for affiliation (i.e., motivation to get along with and be liked by others).
Primary and Secondary Drives Problems with Drive Reduction Theories: There are times when drive reduction theory cannot explain certain aspects of our biological motives. For example, what about overeating? E.g., Thanksgiving -- Do you eat only enough food to satisfy your primary drive of hunger? Motivation to increase the tension or arousal levels in our bodies. E.g. Skydiving What possible drive could these behaviors lower?
Arousal Theories of Motivation Yerkes & Dodson (1908): Performance on a task is affected by one s level of physiological arousal. This relationship is captured by the Yerkes-Dodson curve. In many cases, we tend to perform best on tasks when we are moderately aroused. Too much or too little arousal can have a negative impact on performance.
Motivation and Arousal } The Yerkes-Dodson curve:
Self Determination Theory The idea that humans are motivated by different things is part of a broad theory of motivation called self-determination theory. Humans need to feel Competent (i.e., skilled) Autonomous (i.e., in control of our own behavior) Related to others (i.e., connected) As we try to meet these needs, we will at times experience autonomous motivation.
Self Determination Theory When we are autonomously motivated, we are selfmotivated to engage in a behavior. SDT implies that certain forms of incentives have power to motivate us into action. Such incentives can be either intrinsic (internal) or extrinsic (external). Intrinsic incentives (e.g., wanting to earn a good grade to please yourself) provide intrinsic motivation for behavior. Extrinsic incentives (e.g., wanting to earn a good grade to receive monetary rewards), provide extrinsic motivation for behavior
Activity! Consider the following two situations, which describe two scenarios. Record your preferences for either scenario A or scenario B Record whether your would be more satisfied with scenario A or scenario B
Activity! Instructions: Imagine that you have been investing money in the stock market for four (4) consecutive years. While you recognize that there is volatility in the market, your general goal is to make at least $15,000 per year in earnings from your investments.
Situation #1 Ready?
Situation #1 Would you rather Scenario A Your earnings decreased $1,000 for each of the four years you invested, and your earnings for the last year were $15,000. Scenario B Your earnings increased $1,000 for each of the four years you invested, and your earnings for the last year were $15,000.
Situation #2 Ready?
Situation #2 Would you rather Scenario A Your earnings were $18,000 for the first year; your average earnings over the first two years was $17,500, over the first three years was $17,000, and over the entire four years was $16,500. Scenario B Your earnings were $12,000 for the first year; your average earnings over the first two years was $12,500, over the first four years was $13,000,and over the entire four years was $13,500.
Let s Tally the Results } Scenario #1 How many said A? How many said B? } Scenario #2 How many said A? How many said B?
Anticipated Outcomes
Anticipated Outcomes } Both Situation #1 & Situation #2 describe exactly the same pattern of earnings: Earnings $20,000.00 $18,000.00 $16,000.00 $14,000.00 $12,000.00 $10,000.00 1 2 3 4 Year Scenario A - Greater Position Scenaro B - Greater Velocity Goal ($15,000.00) Situation #1 describes earnings over time in terms of changes over time. Situation #2 describes earnings over time in terms of averages over time.
Anticipated Outcomes } Scenario B should be preferred in situation 1 Why? People typically prefer gains relative to a goal rather than losses. This can be explained the the same drive-reduction mechanisms that we discussed earlier. Gestalt explanation: Assumption that patterns will continue } Scenario A should be preferred in situation 2 Why? When framed in terms of averages, people prefer greater overall/aggregate outcomes, despite decreasing performance. People s overall standing relative to their goal is more salient than direction.
Emotions } This section covers: The biology of emotions Theories of emotions Expressing and interpreting emotions
The Biology of Emotions
The Biology of Emotions Two structures the amygdala and the insula are located within the fold at the junction of the frontal and temporal lobes. Both are important identification of emotional stimuli and the initiation of arousal in response to the perception of these stimuli.
The Biology of Emotions The amygdala acts to evaluate environmental stimuli for potential danger and coordinate appropriate responses. Amygdala perceives danger => initiates a hormonal cascade (e.g., pituitary gland/adrenal gland secretions) => increased release of neurotransmitters in the brain => increase in overall arousal.
The Biology of Emotions The amygdala is part of a larger circuit that includes the frontal lobes of the cortex, the cingulate cortex, and the insula. Functions of this circuit : Identification and classification of emotional stimuli The conscious experience (i.e., construction/representation) of emotions. Let s explore the components of this circuit a bit more
The Biology of Emotions Cingulate Cortex The cingulate cortex is the target of a number of neural pathways communicating physical pain. The emotional quality of pain probably results this. Cingulate cortex also processes social pain. Negative feelings associated with being socially excluded. Feelings of exclusion activate the same areas that are normally active when we feel physical pain
The Biology of Emotions Insula Mapping visceral states (e.g., emotional reactions) that are associated with emotional experience (e.g., emotional reactions) i.e., Important for conscious understanding of feelings. Cerebral cortex The two cerebral hemispheres appear to participate differently in the processing of emotion. Activity in the left hemisphere correlates with positive emotions Activity in the right hemisphere correlates with negative emotions.
James-Lange Theory of Emotions Emotions have distinct bodily expression. Once the individual perceives a stimulus they will experience a physiological response. Reponses is subsequently interpreted by the individual => conscious awareness of a subjective feeling. Assumptions Physical states related to each type of feeling are highly distinct from one another. We are capable of correctly associating and labeling these distinct physical states as separate feelings
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotions Both physical responses and subjective feelings occur simultaneously and independently Does not assume that the experience of a subjective feeling is dependent on any physical sensations.
Schacter-Singer Theory of Emotions General state of arousal leads to an assessment, which in turn leads to subjective feelings. To identify the source of your arousal, you would assess your situation, attribute your arousal to the the stimulus, and identify your feelings (hopefully accurately!)
Theories of Emotions (cont d.) } These early theories of emotions don t do a very good job of accounting for the the experience of complex emotions. E.g., Pride, Loss } Somatovisceral Afference Model of Emotion (SAME)
SAME Model SAME suggests physical responses to a stimulus can range from quite specific to quite general. E.g., Disgust vs. Pride. The initial degree of specificity of the physical response leads to different forms/levels of cognitive processing. Very specific arousal => distinct physical response => unambiguous recognition of a subjective feeling. Very general arousal => ambiguous physical response => significant cognitive processing and evaluation.
SAME Model This range of physical responses means that subsequent emotional responses range from immediate to delayed This is based on the amount of cognitive processing that is required. Emotions that are associated with a precise set of physical responses, like fear, occur very quickly. Emotions that are associated with more general arousal, like pride, occur relatively slowly.
Expressing Emotions } Are some expressions universally understood?
Expressing Emotions Human beings express emotion with their entire bodies. Threatened/Scared: Arms crossed & hunch forward. Angry/Aggressive: Lean forward, rise onto the balls of the feet, raise shoulders Efforts to appear larger and more intimidating.
Expressing Emotions We rely heavily on the face for expressing emotion. Facial expressions (e.g., smiles, frowns) are affected by how the brain controls tiny muscles of our faces. Facial muscles receive input from the motor areas of the cerebral cortex, as well as from subcortical areas which control voluntary movement and spontaneous/involuntary reactions. E.g., Voluntarily: smile for the camera. E.g., Spontaneous: laughing at joke.
Expressing Emotions Do we learn how to express emotions, or are these behaviors built-in? Darwin believed that human emotional expression had been shaped through evolution. Do human beings in all parts of the world to share common means of expression? Some major emotional expressions appear to be universal across cultures» E.g., Anger, sadness, happiness, fear, disgust, surprise, contempt, and embarrassment.
Evidence for the Universality of Emotions Emotional expressions seem to be universal. Predictable developmental course shown by young children e.g., Social smiles emerge around three months, regardless of whether an infant can see faces or is born blind Universality of words for different emotional states Evidence of emotion s common biological source? 60+ of the world s languages use similar approaches to describe major emotions.
Experiencing Psychology: Real or Fake? } Which of these smiles is fake? Which is real?
Experiencing Psychology: Real or Fake? } Which of these smiles is fake? Which is real?
The Role of Motivation in Emotion } Humans are quite accurate in their ability to read emotions. We think we do a good job of hiding our feelings, but the subtleties of emotional expression often give us away. Ability to distinguish between genuine and fake expressions is far from perfect however, we can be remarkably accurate in reading faces. Some psychologists, including Paul Ekman, have built a career around this phenomenon.