THE IMPACT OF POSITIVE URGENCY ON IMPULSIVE BUYING BEHAVIOUR

Transcription

1 THE IMPACT OF POSITIVE URGENCY ON IMPULSIVE BUYING BEHAVIOUR A potential predictor of impulsive purchases for fashion products Master Thesis Exposé Felicia Berto European Master in Business Studies

2 ABSTRACT Title: The impact of positive urgency on impulsive buying behaviour: a potential predictor of impulsive purchases for fashion products. Keywords: Impulsive buying behaviour; positive urgency; impulsivity; impulsive buying precursors; urge to buy; impulsive buying tendency. Background: Impulsive buys account for a significant amount of purchases, and fashion merchandise proved to be one of the main items subject to this behaviour. The greatest impact on impulsive buying is represented by the interaction of dispositional factors (i.e. impulsive personality trait) and situational factors. Regarding impulsivity, this is a multifaceted construct, originally based on a four-factor model: urgency, lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, sensation seeking (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001). From among these facets, only urgency, correlated to negative mood, is a predictor of impulsive buying. In 2007, Cyders and colleagues included a fifth dimension, called positive urgency: this trait proved not to overlap with elements of behavioural activation system (Gray, 1987), nor with the four facets of impulsivity defined by Whiteside and Lynam (2001). Moreover, positive urgency is a valid predictor of risky behaviours and positive mood-based rash actions. However, the impact of positive urgency has not been studied yet in the field of impulsive shopping. Purpose: Therefore, the aim of the research is to study the relationship between impulsive buying and the positive urgency trait, possibly activated by a strong positive mood caused by external triggers. The goal of the research is to prove the influence of this specific impulsivity trait on IBT, filling the gap of the theoretical framework related to antecedents of impulsive buying on the one hand, and providing store managers with advices and suggestions on the other. In particular, managerial implications may include how to induce the customer to feel the urge to buy and increase the likelihood of impulsive purchases. Research question: The impact of the impulsivity trait called positive urgency on impulsive shopping behavior: is it a potential predictor? Methodology: Respondents have to fill in an online questionnaire, spread via or on social networks and based on Lykert-style scales assessing shopping habits, impulsivity traits, reaction to stimuli, and tendency to adopt an impulsive buying behaviour. Subsequently, the data collected will be used to create a multiple linear regression model explaining the phenomenon of impulsive buying in relationship with certain factors regarded as antecedents, with a focus on positive urgency. A qualitative analysis of the results will follow, in order to prove the role played by the positive urgency trait as a predictor of impulsive buying. 1

3 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT... 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS... 2 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS... 4 LIST OF FIGURES... 4 LIST OF TABLES... 4 INTRODUCTION Background Problem statement Purpose Structure... 6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Impulsive buying behaviour... 7 i. Definition of impulsive buying... 7 ii. The separation between feeling the urge and engaging in an impulsive purchase.. 9 iii. Motivations behind impulsive shopping Impulsivity i. Dimensions of the impulsivity trait ii. Scales and measures of impulsivity iii. The introduction of a fifth facet: positive urgency Precursors of impulsive buying i. Dispositional variables ii. Situational variables iii. Sociodemographic variables RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESES METHODOLOGY Sample and data collection Research instrument

4 3. Variables definition and corresponding scales of measurement Data analysis method PLAN OF WORK OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTERS REFERENCES

5 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CI: consumption impulse CIFE: consumption impulse formation and enactment IBT: impulsive buying tendency LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. The CIFE framework. LIST OF TABLES Table 1. UPPS impulsive behaviour scale. Table 2. Items for measuring Positive Urgency. Table 3. Items for assessing IBT. Table 4. Purchasing pleasure scale. Table 5. Measurement of neuroticism trait. 4

6 INTRODUCTION 1. Background Nowadays, unplanned purchases form part of everyone s daily life: many consumers report they frequently buy items on impulse, due to triggers that facilitate spontaneous shopping, like the diffusion of 24-hour retailing stores, credit cards use, e-commerce, home shopping networks, etc. (Gardner & Rook, 1993; Rook, 1987). Specifically, impulse purchases can account for up to 60%, and many shopping decisions are made once in store, without previous buying intentions (Amos, Holmes, & Keneson, 2014). As argued by Rook (1987), situational stimuli normally trigger automatic responses that lead the individual to act on impulse, with any or little premeditation nor consideration on the consequences of this behaviour in the short and long term. This reaction is driven by a specific feeling, regarded as the urge to buy impulsively, that the consumer experience as irresistible, persistent and powerful (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Dholakia, 2000; Rook, 1987; Rook & Fisher, 1995). Although situational factors have a relevant impact on this urgency feeling, contributing to the creation of a consumption impulse, the likelihood of an impulsive buying behaviour increases when these variables interact with dispositional elements characterising the individual (Amos et al., 2014). In fact, personality demonstrated to play a role in the natural disposition of enacting behaviours driven by stimuli and impulses (Shahjehan, 2012; Thompson & Prendergast, 2015; Verplanken & Herabadi, 2001). The main influence is brought by impulsivity, a particular personality trait for which people tend to follow their impulses and take rash-actions as a response to certain provoking elements (Amos et al., 2014; Evenden, 1999; Eysenck, Pearson, Easting, & Allsopp, 1985). Specifically, the impulsivity dimension called urgency proved to be significantly related to impulsive and compulsive buying, explaining the consumer tendency to surrender to strong negative emotions with automatic responses (Billieux, Rochat, Rebetez, & Van der Linden, 2008; Whiteside & Lynam, 2001; Whiteside, Lynam, Miller, & Reynolds, 2005). However, individuals can react on impulse also after experiencing strong positive emotions, and as a result, a specific dimension called positive urgency was developed (Cyders, Smith, Spillane, Fischer, Annus, Peterson, 2007; Cyders & Smith, 2007). This trait presents a strong impact on mood-based rash actions, although the current state of research has not investigated its influence on impulsive buying in particular. 2. Problem statement Due to its significant relationship with mood-driven rash actions, the positive urgency trait has the potentiality to predict impulsive buying behaviour, by inducing the consumer to feel a powerful urge to buy and subsequently to purchase an item on impulse in order to react to an emotionally charged shopping experience. In fact, consumers characterized by this specific 5

7 personality trait, are expected to be triggered by external stimuli, which provide a sense of arousal or immediate gratification, consequently causing the urge to buy. Pleasure feelings and a positive affective state may have the function of activating the latent positive urgency trait in the individual, who is unable to resist to the temptation and eventually react to these stimuli with an automatic and spontaneous response, consisting in an impulsive purchase. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that, on the one hand, negative urgency regarded as the reverse impulsivity facet of positive urgency showed a strong relationship with impulsive buying (Billieux et al., 2008). On the other hand, several studies analysed and compared the impact of positive and negative emotions on consumer behaviour and moodbased actions, and key findings argued that positive affective state has a stronger influence on the urge to buy (Gardner & Rook, 1993). 3. Purpose Building on previous research and the abovementioned problem statement, the purpose of this study is to investigate the linkage between the impulsivity facet of positive urgency, which will be further described in the chapter dedicated to the literature review, and impulsive buying behaviour, as applied towards fashion products. Specifically, the aim is to contribute to the current theoretical framework with a model that provides a comprehensive description of impulsive buying with its main antecedents. Moreover, since this personality trait is activated when the individual experiences strong positive emotions, this research addresses the most relevant elements causing positive mood in the consumer (i.e., money availability, time pressure and marketing stimuli). Apart from its theoretical implications, the outcome of the study can be exploited by store managers, in order to influence the consumer s affective state through specific features of the retail environment, that can increase the likelihood of perceiving the urge to buy on impulse. 4. Structure In order to introduce the topic in depth, a review of the literature on impulsive buying, the personality construct of impulsivity with its different dimensions, and main precursors of impulsive purchase behaviour is presented. The research question follows, accompanied by a detailed explanation of the hypotheses that will be tested by the study. The third chapter is dedicated to the methodology: it includes data collection method, data analysis approach and an exhaustive description of the variables under consideration. This part is followed by the analysis and interpretation of the results, based on the development of a multiple linear regression model on impulsive buying; also, respondents are segmented based on their shopping habits, and an initial discussion of key findings of the research is provided. Finally, 6

8 a chapter will provide the reader with the conclusions of the research, consisting of theoretical and managerial implications, limitations of the study, and suggestions for further research on the topic. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 1. Impulsive buying behaviour i. Definition of impulsive buying Nowadays, impulsive buying accounts for a significant amount of total purchases, more specifically for some determined product categories (i.e. fashion merchandise and jewellery), consistently with the widespread phenomenon of in-store decision-making process (Amos et al., 2014; Dittmar, Beattie, & Friese, 1996; Hausman, 2000). A comprehensive definition of this kind of consumer behaviour includes the experience of a sudden, irresistible, and persistent urge to buy an item immediately, characterized by the lack of pre-shopping intentions and by any or little regards for the consequences. Normally, this feeling is powerful and leads the consumer to engage in an unplanned and impulsive purchase, with a short timegap between the consumption impulse and the enactment of the behaviour (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Dholakia, 2000; Rook, 1987; Rook & Fisher, 1995). However, it is observed that feeling the urge to buy not always turns into an impulsive buying behaviour: specific normative and cognitive evaluations are applied by the consumer (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Dholakia, 2000; Hausman, 2000; Rook & Fisher, 1995), and a more detailed review of the different resistance strategies will be presented in this chapter. Further features of the impulsive buying behaviour are the following: spontaneity, immediate gratification, temporary hedonic temptation, positive affect or emotional charge, and potential post-purchase justifications without a true remorse (Amos et al., 2014; Arnold & Reynolds, 2003; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Dittmar et al., 1996; Liu, Li, & Hu, 2013; Rook, 1987). Impulsive buying behaviour finds its first roots into a specific socio-psychological framework, represented by the so called symbolic consumption. Dittmar et al. (1996) stated that consumers do not just consume actual products, but also - or even instead - consume the symbolic meanings of those products (p.188). Therefore, the aim of an item s purchase and subsequent consumption is not to satisfy a specific need, but to create, reinforce and maintain the consumer s identity, as a way for expressing the self. This directly recalls the symbolic self-completion theory conceived by Wicklund and Gollwitzer (1982), successively deepen by Dittmar et al. (1996) with the construct of self-discrepancies perceived by an individual with 7

9 respect to his or her image and the ideal self. Building on this theory, the acquisition of goods and subsequently material possessions have the function of fulfilling these discrepancies (Dittmar et al., 1996). Another construct of the framework that correlates with impulsive shopping is hedonic consumption, defined as those facets of consumer behavior that relate to the multisensory, fantasy and emotive aspects of one's experience with products (Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982, p. 92). In this case, a consumer purchasing items seeks the experience of shopping itself, and obtains satisfaction from that event and not just from the consumption of the product (Dittmar et al., 1996; Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982; Rook, 1987). Despite its simple definition, hedonic consumption can assume different forms, represented by six broad categories: adventure shopping, social shopping, gratification shopping, idea shopping, role shopping, and value shopping (Arnold & Reynolds, 2003). Moreover, the impact of personality needs to be taken into account when describing the framework of impulsive buying (Thompson & Prendergast, 2015; Verplanken & Herabadi, 2001). Building on the personality structure regarded as the Big Five Personality Traits extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism or emotional instability, and openness (Goldberg, 1990) the specific relationship between impulsive buying behaviour and personality was more deeply studied and the findings brought a relevant contribution to the corresponding theoretical framework. The Big Five personality traits proved to explain one third of the total variance of impulsive buying behaviour, and the main elements were openness and neuroticism (Shahjehan, 2012; Sharma, Sivakumaran, & Marshall, 2010; Thompson & Prendergast, 2015). This results in the fact that consumers regarded as imaginative, artistically sensitive and intellectual (openness to experience), but also nervous, anxious, tense and insecure (emotional instability) are more likely to display impulsive buying behaviour. Furthermore, many studies highlight the impact of the impulsivity trait of personality on impulsive shopping (Dholakia, 2000; Liu et al., 2013; Rook & Fisher, 1995), which mainly relates to neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001; Whiteside et al., 2005). A specific chapter will be dedicated to impulsivity and its relationship with impulsive buying. Even though impulsive buying behaviour appears similar to compulsive buying behaviour, due to similar roots in the symbolic self-completion theory and the common features of hedonic temptation and short-sighted decision-making process, the two constructs are distinct. Obviously, both tendencies are driven by precursors such as socio-demographic factors and personality traits. However, compulsive buying differentiates from impulse buying as it is caused by internal triggers of identity confusion and anxiety (Claes, Müller, & Luyckx, 2016; DeSarbo & Edwards, 1996). In addition, it is characterized by an addictive behaviour that leads the consumer to feel an uncontrolled, repetitive and excessive urge to buy, followed by an 8

10 immediate positive sensation that eventually turns into distress, guilt, and negative mood. Therefore, compulsive buying behaviour has a detrimental effect on the individual, which is not experienced in the case of impulsive buying (Amos et al., 2014; Shahjehan, 2012; Claes et al., 2016; DeSarbo & Edwards, 1996; Mueller, Mitchell, Peterson, Faber, Steffen, Crosby, & Claes, 2011). Before the sense of euphoria and distress relief that characterise that postpurchase consumer s mood, the most common antecedent of compulsive buying behaviour is represented by negative emotions (Miltenberger, Redlin, Crosby, Stickney, Mitchell, Wonderlich, Faber, & Smith, 2003), whereas impulsive buying is explained by a broader pool of precursors that will be studied in another chapter. ii. The separation between feeling the urge and engaging in an impulsive purchase Although the impulse purchase is always preceded by feeling the urge to buy, due to a certain degree of impulsive buying tendency characterizing the individual, it is necessary to separate the impulse to buy and the action of the actual purchase. Obviously, the felt urge fosters the decision to buy on impulse, and these elements proved to be positively and significantly correlated (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998). In addition, these impulses normally entail a sense of anticipated gratifying experience, for which the consumer finds it difficult to apply a strategy of impulse control (Rook, 1987). However, as stated by Rook and Fisher (1995), [t]he probability that consumers actually engage in impulse buying presumably depends both on the degree to which they possess impulsive buying trait tendencies and on their normative judgments that may proscribe or permit a particular impulsive purchase (p. 305). Therefore, Rook and Fisher s theory (1995) argues that normative evaluations on the appropriateness of making an impulse purchase play a significant role as to mediate the relationship between IBT and the actual impulsive purchase. In addition, these evaluations are driven either by personality traits or by situational norms. More specifically, the theory concludes that positive normative evaluations reinforce the impulsive purchase behaviour, consistently with the personality trait described by impulsiveness. On the other hand, negative normative evaluations attenuate the relationship and causality between IBT and the impulsive purchase. However, if the negative influence is weak, the individual may respond with an impulsive purchase anyway, violating the norms and subsequently feeling an additional arousal that is not caused by the shopping experience only. This happens under a certain normative threshold, beyond which the impulse is completely dissipated and the individual does not eventually enact the behaviour (Rook & Fisher, 1995). This moderating role of normative evaluations proved to be valid also in an online context (Liu et al., 2013). 9

11 Building on Rook and Fisher s theory (1995), in 2000 Dholakia designed an integrated model of consumption impulse formation and enactment (CIFE), illustrated in Figure 1. According to this model, the process always starts with perception and recognition of a consumption impulse (CI), followed by an automatic response consisting in the evaluation of potential constraining factors (i.e., time limits, money availability, long-term consequences of enacting the behaviour and related anticipatory emotions). If this assessment results in the lack of constraints, the individual proceeds by enacting the CI, adopting a consonant behaviour. Conversely, if limitations do exist, the process continues with a cognitive evaluation of consequences: if these are regarded as positive, the CI is enacted and results in a dissonant impulsive behaviour; on the other hand, if the evaluation has a negative outcome, the volitional system intervenes and the individual exploits resistance strategies. These tactics will manage to dissipate the impulse depending on the expectancy of resisting to it: if the probability to resist is unfavourable, the individual engages in a dissonant impulsive behaviour and an impulse purchase is made; contrarily, if the expectancy is favourable, the CI results in a nonbehaviour and is dispelled (Dholakia, 2000). Figure 1. The CIFE framework. Source: Dholakia, 2000, p

12 iii. Motivations behind impulsive shopping In contrast with previous psychological studies that regarded impulsive buying behaviour as irrational, immature, wasteful and wrong (Ainslie, 1975; Levy, 1976), Rook and Fisher (1995) provided a different perspective on the topic. Accordingly, consumers implement normative evaluations to assess if a certain behaviour (i.e., impulse purchase) is appropriate in a given situation, and these judgments moderate the intercurrent relationship between the urge to buy and the action of buying. However, impulsive purchases account for a significant amount of buying, since negative evaluations are frequently weak and can be easily overcome by certain justifications (Hausman, 2000; Rook & Fisher, 1995). Consistently with the above-mentioned theory of hedonic consumption, for which the acquisition of the product is secondary to the experience provided by the shopping activity itself (Arnold & Reynolds, 2003; Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982), hedonic needs are identified as basic motivators of impulsive buying. In particular, consumers engaging in impulse purchases are driven by needs of novelty, variety, fun, surprise and social interaction (Hausman, 2000). Moreover, Hausman (2000) proved that impulsive buying also aims at satisfying needs of esteem, related to the desire to be fashionconscious and keep abreast with latest trends, and self-actualization, as theorized by Maslow s Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow, 1968). Finally, impulse buying... represents a rational alternative to more time-consuming search behaviours (Hausman, 2000, p. 413). 2. Impulsivity One of the main drivers of impulsive buying is the personality trait of impulsivity, also called impulsiveness, which has been studied in several research fields. In general, the construct proved to form part of extraversion (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1968, 1977) and to strongly correlate with traits of novelty-seeking and sensation-seeking (Cloninger, Przybeck, & Svrakic, 1991, 1993; Zuckerman, 1994). As studied by Tellegen (1985) and Cloninger et al. (1991), impulsivity represents an automatic response to stimuli provided by the environment, and the manner and the intensity of the response depend on individual biological tendencies. Amos et al. (2014) presented a comprehensive definition and analysis of this psychological construct, regarded as lack of behavioral control and an immediate preference for surrendering to temptation (p. 88), in contrast with the tendency to follow self-regulation of impulses or planned actions. i. Dimensions of the impulsivity trait Regarding the components of impulsivity, researchers developed several theories. Eysenck and Eysenck (1977) initially defined the construct as composed by four dimensions narrow 11

13 impulsiveness, risk-taking, non-planning, and liveness, but further research subdivided impulsivity into only two dimensions, called venturesomeness and impulsiveness (Eysenck et al., 1985). Subsequently, components of impulsivity were described as attentional impulsivity, in relationship to cognitive instability and the capability to focus on tasks; motor impulsiveness, as to explain the tendency to engage in rash actions; finally, non-planning, for the lack of premeditation (Patton, Stanford, & Barratt, 1995). A more detailed theory was proposed by Evenden (1999), who contributed with a definition of impulsivity and its dimensions, and also studied the construct in relationship to psychiatric disorders and to its effect on behaviours. Specifically, impulsivity trait is divided into lack of premeditation before acting and consideration of the outcome, often resulting in risk-preference. Moreover, the construct may affect individual behaviour in three different stages: impulsive preparation, leading to premature responses, driven by expectations created before gathering all the necessary information; impulsive execution, causing distraction, inability to wait, tendency to interrupt other people and not to follow given instructions; and impulsivity in outcomes, bringing to the inability to delay gratification (Evenden, 1999). The latest theory on impulsivity, on which the present research is based, was developed by Whiteside, Lynam and colleagues (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001; Whiteside et al., 2005). The multifaceted construct of impulsivity derives from the five-factor model of personality and, in particular, it can be explained through a four-factor model: the UPPS behavioural scale (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001). According to this scale, impulsivity consists of four dimensions, defined as it follows: Urgency, refers to the tendency to engage in impulsive behaviours under conditions of negative affect, perhaps in order to alleviate negative emotions, despite the potentially harmful longer-term consequences. Premeditation... refers to a difficulty in thinking and reflecting on the consequences of an act before engaging in that act. Lack of Perseverance... refers to an individual s inability to remain focused on a task that may be boring or difficult. Finally, Sensation Seeking... has two aspects: (1) a tendency to enjoy and pursue activities that are exciting, and (2) an openness to trying new experiences that may be dangerous. (Whiteside et al., 2005, p. 561). As regards the correlation with the Big Five personality traits, urgency mainly correlates with neuroticism, sensation-seeking with extraversion, while lack of premeditation and lack of perseverance correspond to low scores of conscientiousness (Whiteside & Lynam, 2001; 12

14 Whiteside et al., 2005). Furthermore, a more detailed definition of the urgency trait was provided, by combining impulsivity with negative affect, as it involves difficulty in controlling or coping with urges to act in response to unpleasant emotions (Whiteside et al., 2005, p. 569). Consistently with this definition, urgency proved to be a strong predictor of compulsive buying tendency (Billieux et al., 2008) and of troublesome and risky behaviours (Sperry, Lynam, Walsh, Horton, & Kwapil, 2016). ii. Scales and measures of impulsivity As previously explained, according to Whiteside and colleagues the psychological construct of impulsivity is described by four facets: urgency, (lack of) premeditation, (lack of) perseverance, and sensation-seeking. The UPPS scale that summarizes these dimensions consists of 43 items, divided into four groups as presented in Table 1. Table 1. UPPS impulsive behaviour scale. Source: Whiteside and Lynam, 2001, p Premeditation 1. I have a reserved and cautious attitude toward life. 2. My thinking is usually careful and purposeful. 3. I am not one of those people who blurt out things without thinking. 4. I like to stop and think things over before I do them. 5. I don't like to start a project until I know exactly how to proceed. 6. I tend to value and follow a rational, sensible'' approach to things. 7. I usually make up my mind through careful reasoning. 8. I am a cautious person. 9. Before I get into a new situation I like to find out what to expect from it. 10. I usually think carefully before doing anything. 11. Before making up my mind, I consider all the advantages and disadvantages. Urgency 1. I have trouble controlling my impulses. 2. I have trouble resisting my cravings (for food, cigarettes, etc.). 3. I often get involved in things I later wish I could get out of. 4. When I feel bad, I will often do things I later regret in order to make myself feel better now. 5. Sometimes when I feel bad, I can't seem to stop what I am doing even though it is making me feel worse. 6. When I am upset I often act without thinking. 13

15 7. When I feel rejected, I will often say things that I later regret. 8. It is hard for me to resist acting on my feelings. 9. I often make matters worse because I act without thinking when I am upset. 10. In the heat of an argument, I will often say things that I later regret. 11. I am always able to keep my feelings under control. (R) 12. Sometimes I do things on impulse that I later regret Perseverance 1. I generally like to see things through to the end. 2. I tend to give up easily. (R) 3. Unfinished tasks really bother me. 4. Once I get going on something I hate to stop. 5. I concentrate easily. 6. I finish what I start. 7. I'm pretty good about pacing myself so as to get things done on time. 8. I am a productive person who always gets the job done. 9. Once I start a project, I almost always finish it. 10. There are so many little jobs that need to be done that I sometimes just ignore them all. (R) Sensation-seeking 1. I generally seek new and exciting experiences and sensations. 2. I'll try anything once. 3. I like sports and games in which you have to choose your next move very quickly. 4. I would enjoy water skiing. 5. I quite enjoy taking risks. 6. I would enjoy parachute jumping. 7. I welcome new and exciting experiences and sensations, even if they are a little frightening and unconventional. 8. I would like to learn to fly an airplane. 9. I sometimes like doing things that are a bit frightening. 10. I would enjoy the sensation of skiing very fast down a high mountain slope. 11. I would like to go scuba diving. 12. I would enjoy fast driving. In particular, after the development of the UPPS behavioural scale, Whiteside et al. (2005) validated this scale. The four traits proved to be intercorrelated, especially Perseverance and Premeditation, but it is observed that they must be kept distinct. In particular, when assessing 14

16 the impact of impulsivity on individuals affected by psychopathological disorders, the corresponding personality traits appear to be essential features. Nevertheless, the level of significance of each impulsivity dimension varies depending on psychopathology groups, thus it is possible to conclude that the four facets do not overlap with one another (Miller, Flory, Lynam, & Leukefeld, 2003; Whiteside et al., 2005). iii. The introduction of a fifth facet: positive urgency The UPPS scale was subsequently updated by introducing a new dimension called positive urgency, that proved to be a symmetrical facet of urgency as initially defined (Cyders, Littlefield, Coffey, & Karyadi, 2014; D Orta, Burnay, Aiello, Niolu, Siracusano, Timpanaro, Khazaal, Billieux, 2015). In fact, in the original scale, urgency was regarded as the inability to repress automatic responses driven by negative affect (Whiteside et al., 2005). Nonetheless, it is observed that the same behaviour is implemented by individuals in response to positive emotional contexts too, thus it is necessary to distinguish between negative and positive urgency in the description of the multifaceted construct of impulsivity. Specifically, Cyders and colleagues (2007) theorized the construct of positive urgency as a personality trait describing a determined attitude towards rash actions, characterized by lack of intentions and mood-based drivers. Normally, individuals engage in impulsive actions due to the positive urgency trait as to enhance their own positive mood. Therefore, this dimension may lead to maladaptive and sometimes risky behaviours, in response to emotionally charged situations characterized by positive feelings that make the individual surrender to tempting stimuli. In fact, positive urgency proved to be correlated to risky and impulsive behaviours such as gambling, alcohol abuse, smoking dependence, internet addiction, etc. (Cyders et al., 2007; Cyders & Smith, 2007; D Orta et al., 2015). The validation of positive urgency as the fifth facet of the impulsivity trait is based on the fact that the construct do not overlap with any element of the two prominent models of impulsivity, represented by Gray s behavioural activation system (1987) and Whiteside and Lynam s fourfactor model of impulsivity (Cyders et al., 2007). Moreover, when studying the relationship between impulsivity and risky behaviours or psychopathological disorders, positive urgency proved to explain an additional variance of these phenomena. In particular, it represents a strong predictor of risky behaviours (i.e., gambling, problem drinking) driven by positive mood (Cyders et al., 2007; Cyders & Smith, 2007; D Orta et al., 2015). Items describing and measuring positive urgency are listed in Table 2. 15

17 Table 2. Items for measuring Positive Urgency. Source: Cyders et al., 2007, p Positive urgency 1. When I am very happy, I can t seem to stop myself from doing things that can have bad consequences. 2. When I am in great mood, I tend to get into situations that could cause me problems. 3. When I am very happy, I tend to do things that may cause problems in my life. 4. I tend to lose control when I am in a great mood. 5. When I am really ecstatic, I tend to get out of control. 6. Others would say I make bad choices when I am extremely happy about something. 7. Others are shocked or worried about the things I do when I am feeling very excited. 8. When I get really happy about something, I tend to do things that can have bad consequences. 9. When overjoyed, I feel like I can t stop myself from going overboard. 10. When I am really excited, I tend not to think of the consequences of my actions. 11. I tend to act without thinking when I am really excited. 12. When I am really happy, I often find myself in situations that I normally wouldn t be comfortable with. 13. When I am very happy, I feel like it is OK to give in to cravings or overindulge. 14. I am surprised at the things I do while in a great mood. Further research contributed to the theoretical framework of positive urgency with the creation of a model explaining mood-based rash actions. The behavioural components are urgency, distinguished into positive and negative according to the affective state; sensation or excitement seeking; and deficit of conscientiousness, which can be displayed in the form of lack of premeditation or lack of perseverance (Cyders & Smith, 2007). Building on this classification of components, two possible models fit the representation of mood-based rash actions: a three-factor model, composed by the abovementioned elements, or a five-factor model, in which the two forms of urgency and the two forms of deficit of conscientiousness represent distinct components. In any case, even though positive and negative urgency are aggregated in the first model, because of parsimony reasons, they proved to explain different behaviours: positive urgency characterizes behaviours driven by positive mood, whereas negative urgency explains actions caused by negative affect, thus a distinction is necessary (Cyders et al., 2014; Cyders & Smith, 2007; D Orta et al., 2015). 16

18 3. Precursors of impulsive buying This chapter will be dedicated to an overview of the main antecedents of the impulsive buying behaviour, classified into three categories as presented by Amos et al. (2014): Dispositional variables, including elements for which each individual differs from another due to specific personal permanent features or biological tendencies. Situational variables, which characterize the context of the action and are not necessarily under the control of the individual (i.e., external stimuli, affective state, limitations, etc.). Sociodemographic variables, explained by age, gender and income. The most significant impact on impulsive buying is driven by the interaction of dispositional and situational variables, specifically IBT, positive social influence and retail environment (Amos et al., 2014). In addition, both positive and negative affective states play an important role as to mediate the urge to buy, in particular positive mood represents a more stable precursor for this type of behaviour (Gardner & Rook, 1993; Flight, Rountree, & Beatty, 2012). A detailed explanation of the different variables and their impact on impulsive buying will follow in this chapter. i. Dispositional variables Impulsive buying tendency (IBT). IBT forms part of the personality trait of impulsivity, and it was defined by Gerbing, Ahadi and Patton as the tendency to respond quickly to a given stimulus, without deliberation and evaluation of consequences (1987, p. 357). Therefore, this trait has an impact on the manner and the intensity with which individuals respond to stimuli and subsequently engage in an impulse buying in their daily life, and it differs from one person to another (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Rook, 1987). IBT results related to elements such as materialism, shopping enjoyment, and sensation seeking trait (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Dittmar et al., 1996; Hyo-Jung, Ruoh-Nan, & Eckman, 2014; Rook, 1987; Sharma et al., 2010). Due to its nature, a high level of IBT leads the consumer to feel more frequent urges to buy, thus to engage in in-store browsing and finally make an impulsive purchase (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998). However, the effect of IBT on impulsive buying behaviour can be moderated by other factors. On the one hand, positive mood and positive social influence endorse IBT and foster the behaviour; on the other hand, negative affect and negative social influence may diminish the intensity of the felt urge, bur normally with a lower intensity than their reverse constructs (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Flight et al., 2012; Rook & Fisher, 1995). 17

19 Shopping enjoyment. The pleasure perceived by the consumer during the shopping experience is another endogenous variable that, together with IBT, addresses an individual difference in the impulsive buying behaviour. Shopping enjoyment is related to hedonic shopping and represents an important antecedent of impulse buying, due to its effect of immediate gratification and emotional arousal. This effect induces the consumer to spend more time in the store and increases the likelihood of feeling the urge to buy and subsequently making an impulsive purchase (Amos et al., 2014; Arnold & Reynolds, 2003; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982). Other psychological constructs. Finally, there are other psychological factors that may play a role in the perception of the urge to buy and in the implementation of an impulsive purchase. In general, they are related to personality traits of novelty and variety seeking, esteem, openness, emotional instability, susceptibility to influence, and they represent precursors of urgency feeling and impulse buying as to foster the behaviour. On the other hand, the ability to maintain self-control, price consciousness and self-monitoring of impulses play the role of inhibitors of this type of consumer behaviour (Amos et al., 2014; Shahjehan, 2012; Dittmar et al., 1996; Sharma et al., 2010; Thompson & Prendergast, 2015; Verplanken & Herabadi, 2001). ii. Situational variables Constraints: time and money availability. As exogenous variables, time and money availability directly explain the duration and the amount of money spent in a store. Their impact on impulse buying is significant since their perception affects the effort that the consumer dedicates to the shopping experience and his or her corresponding mood. In fact, individuals feeling under pressure because of lack of money or time are likely to spend a shorter time in the store, and it results in a decreased likelihood of feeling the urge to buy on impulse (Iyer, 1989). On the other hand, if the customer does not perceived frustration or negative affect, he or she is more likely to engage in an impulsive buying behaviour. Therefore, these two exogenous variables act as precursors by encouraging customers to dedicate more time to the in-store browsing activity, creating a positive affect which leads to more frequent urges to buy and subsequent impulse purchases (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998). In particular for money availability, this factor showed to act as a mediator between consumer s positive emotions responding to environmental stimuli and impulsive buying behaviour (Hyo-Jung et al., 2014). Positive and negative affect. Even though mood represents a temporary affective state and varies across a wide range of different shades, depending on the individual and on the context, 18

20 it plays an important role in influencing consumer behaviour, either conscious or not. In particular, the underlying element in the relationship between impulsive buying and affective states is the sensation of immediate gratification perceived by the consumer after the purchase. In fact, shopping denotes a way to either reinforce positive mood, or relieve negative emotions (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Dholakia, 2000; Gardner & Rook, 1993; Ozer & Gultekin, 2015). Gardner and Rook (1993) proved that their model, combining the three structural dimensions of moods pleasure, arousal, and dominance and the so-called core themes of motivation, mobilization and capability, could provide a comprehensive explanation on the relationship between impulsive buying behaviour and affective states. In particular, the pleasure element of shopping satisfies the need for self-indulgency and immediate gratification, therefore a strong positive mood encourages the consumer to engage in an impulsive purchase. In addition, high levels of arousal decrease the intensity of resistance strategies to spontaneous spending, while the dominance factor induces the feeling of power and being in control of the situation; subsequently all moods dimensions increase the likelihood of impulsive buying behaviours. On other hand, even negative mood may foster the enactment of a buying impulse, as a therapy to relieve stress, negative emotions, or anxiety (Gardner & Rook, 1993). However, positive mood proved to have a stronger impact than its opposite state on impulse buying (Gardner & Rook, 1993; Flight et al., 2012; Beatty & Ferrel, 1998). Specifically, positive mood is normally related to an approach behaviour, for which the individual responds to a stimuli from the environment with the aim of seeking a reward or an affective reinforcement, whereas negative mood is more frequently associated to the adoption of an avoidance behaviour (Beatty & Ferrell, 1998). Finally, this variable generally correlates with other contextual elements, such as money, time availability, stimulation from the store environment, which induce positive feelings that subsequently increase the urge to buy (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998) Marketing stimuli from store environment. Several studies on the antecedents of impulsive buying behaviour analysed and proved the importance that the retail environment fulfils in terms of stimulating the consumer to perceive an irresistible CI. Depending on the type of stimuli, the environment can directly affect the urge to buy something on impulse, or the affective state of the individual browsing in the store (Amos et al., 2014; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Hyo-Jung, Eckmanb, & Ruoh-Nan, 2011; Mattila & Wirtz, 2008). As stated by Mattila and Wirtz (2008), the store environment can produce pleasure and arousal feelings, through different strategies of overstimulation; nevertheless, their efficacy depends on the extent at which this stimulation is able to reach, or even exceed, the desired level defined by the consumer, which strongly depends on personality traits. The elements of stimulation from the retail environment can be classified in three categories: elements affecting the perception of the store, friendly 19

21 employees, and presence of other customers (Mattila & Wirtz, 2008). The second and the third components mitigate one another in terms of capability to induce the customer to browse in the shop and possibly engage in an impulsive purchase. As regards the factors influencing the perception of the context itself, the most relevant ones are: physical proximity and immediate availability of the product; aesthetic appeal, including visual presentation of the item, layout of the store, merchandising elements, general atmosphere of the shop; finally, website ease of use (Arnold & Reynolds, 2003; Beatty & Ferrell, 1998; Dholakia, 2000; Liu et al., 2013). The latter factor, specifically for online impulsive shopping, contributes to the consumer s perception of usefulness, which commonly determines a flow experience as defined by Csikszentmihalyi in The combination of flow experience and trust belief in the website demonstrated to explain a significant percentage of the total variance in online impulsive buying, since the consumer enjoys the shopping experience and is more likely to feel the urge to buy (Wu, Chen, & Chiu, 2016). In fact, design, navigation and communication style of a website represent the main elements encouraging the consumer towards an impulsive purchase in an online context (Floh & Madlberger, 2013; Verhagen & Van Dolen, 2011). Moreover, the stimulation provided by music has a significant impact. Generally, it brings feelings of arousal and pleasure, improving the mood of the customer; additionally, it manipulates time perception, thus increases the time spent browsing in the store (Garlin & Owen, 2006). As a result, all these marketing stimuli condition consumer behaviour and promote impulsive purchases. Social influence. The exogenous variable of social influence plays a relevant role as to mediate the urge to buy on impulse: depending on if it is regarded as positive or negative, this element may respectively boost or prevent the customer from engaging in an impulsive purchase (Amos et al., 2014). As previously mentioned, social norms proved to have an impact on the likelihood of surrendering to the temptation of buying an item without any premeditation or consideration of consequences, and depending on the intensity of the impulse even negative evaluations can be overcome (Rook, 1987; Rook & Fisher, 1995). iii. Sociodemographic variables As investigated in the meta-analysis by Amos et al. (2014), the impulsive buying behaviour may vary depending on certain sociodemographic variables: age is negatively correlated with impulsive purchases, whereas annual income enhances impulsive buying; as regards gender, the research presents conflicting results. However, these factors proved to have the least impact on impulse buying, therefore this research will not address them further. 20

22 Literature review overview of the main references # Title Author(s) Year Published Contribution 1 Hedonic Hirschman, E Journal of Marketing, Consumption: C.; Holbrook, M. 46(3), Emerging Concepts, B. Methods and Propositions 2 The Buying Impulse Rook, D Journal of Consumer Research, 14(2), An alternative Goldberg, L Journal of Personality "description of and Social personality": The bigfive Psychology, 59(6), factor structure In the mood: Impulse Gardner, M.; 1993 Research in consumer buying's affective Rook, D. behavior, 6(7), 1-28 antecedents 5 Normative Influences on Impulsive Buying Behavior Rook, D.; Fisher, R Journal of Consumer Research, 22(3), Objects, decision Dittmar, H.; 1996 Acta Psychologica, considerations and Beattie, J.; 93(1-3), self-image in men's Friese, S. and women's impulse purchases Definition of hedonic consumption Definition of impulsive buying. Forces driving the urge to buy and confirmation of individual differences in the IBT. Creation of a five-factor model for describing personality (The Big Five personality traits). Relationship between impulsive buying and consumer s mood. Development of a comprehensive model for mood, based on three dimensions and three core themes. Moderating role of normative evaluations on the relationship between IBT and impulsive buying behaviour. Roots of impulsive and compulsive buying in symbolic consumption. Explanation of impulsive and 21

23 7 Impulse buying: Modeling its precursors 8 Impulsivity: a discussion of clinical and experimental findings 9 Temptation and Resistance An Integrated Model of Consumption Impulse Formation and Enactment 10 A multi-method investigation of consumer motivations Beatty, S. E.; Ferrel, E. M Journal of Retailing, 74(2), Evenden, J Journal of Psychopharmacology, 13(2), Dholakia, U Psychology and Marketing, 17(11), Hausman, A Journal of Consumer Marketing, 17(5), compulsive buying through selfdiscrepancies, coherently with selfcompletion theory. Definition of impulsive buying, in relationship to the hedonic value of shopping. Analysis of the precursors of impulsive shopping, distinguished into exogenous and endogenous variables (situational elements and individual differences). Dimensions of impulsivity construct into lack of premeditation before acting and consideration of the outcome. Impact of impulsivity on preparation, execution and outcomes. Development of the CIFE model for impulsive buying. Motivations behind impulsive buying, 22

24 in impulse buying consisting in hedonic behavior and additional needs. Perceptions of decisionmaking accuracy during the impulse buying behaviour. 11 The Five-Factor Whiteside, S.; 2001 Personality and Four-factor model for Model and Impulsivity: Lynam, D. Individual Differences, impulsivity (UPPS Using a Structural 30, scale): urgency, Model of Personality premeditation, to Understand perseverance, and Impulsivity sensation seeking. Relationship between impulsivity facets and the Big Five personality traits. 12 Hedonic shopping Arnold, M. J.; 2003 Journal of Retailing, Six shopping categories motivations Reynolds, K. E. 79(2), defining hedonic consumption. 13 Validation of the Whiteside, S European Journal of Validation of the UPPS UPPS Impulsive P.; Lynam, D.; Personality, 19, 559- scale for impulsivity. Behavior Scale: A four Miller, J.; 574 factor model of Reynolds, S. impulsivity 14 Integration of Cyders, M. A.; 2007 Psychological Introduction of the impulsivity and Smith, G. T.; Assessment, 19(1), positive urgency trait to positive mood to Spillane, N. S.; the multifaceted predict risky behavior: Fischer, S.; construct of impulsivity, Development and Annus, A. M.; and development of a validation of a Peterson, C. scale of measurement. measure of positive Relationship between urgency positive urgency risky behaviours. 15 Mood-based rash Cyders, M. A.; 2007 Personality and Relationship between action and its Smith, G. T. Individual Differences, positive urgency and 43(4),