Socio-cultural Factors Influencing the Feminization of HUV/aids in the Rural Areas of Nigeria: Implications for Food Security.

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1 Research Journal of Social Sciences, 2: 7-13, , INSInet Publication Socio-cultural Factors Influencing the Feminization of HUV/aids in the Rural Areas of Nigeria: Implications for Food Security. Olanike Deji, Stella Williams and Samson Deji Dr. Olanike Deji, Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Faculty of Agriculture, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife, Osun State. Nigeria. Abstract: This paper explored some socio-cultural factors influencing the vulnerability of women to HIV/AIDS, and its implication on food and nutrition security in Nigeria. Exploratory methodological approach was employed for the paper. Socio-cultural factors inhibiting women; how HIV/AIDS affected women with regard to the linkage of human labor; food and nutrition security; and how socio-cultural factors against women impinged on sustainability of agricultural productivity in Nigeria, were reviewed. The paper concluded that improving women s freedom to participate in decision-making process at the family and community levels is very germane to both the control and the eradication of the pandemic of HIV/AIDS on the human society, nutrition and food productivity in Nigeria. It therefore recommends the passing of policy by the legislative groups in Nigeria for the eradication of the negative socio-cultural factors militating against women. Key words: Epidemic, gender, rural development, sustainability, women INTRODUCTION The importance of food security to any nation cannot be over emphasized. The issue of food security became prominent in the 1970s and had been given considerable attention since then. The World Food Programme Report in 1979 conceptualized food security, equating it with an assurance of supplies and a balanced supply-demand situation of staple foods in the International market. The report also emphasized that increasing food production in the developing countries is a panacea to food security. The concept of food security proposes that food is available, accessible and affordable, when and where needed in sufficient quantity and quality and that this state of affair will [1] continue and be sustained. It is a situation in which sufficient food is available at all times in the right quantity and quality, at affordable prices. To accomplish this, we must have a production system that produces enough food in the short run, sustainable in the long run and does not place undue risks on agricultural producers and must respond rapidly to disruptions in the food supply due to disease epidemics, natural disasters, civil disturbances, [1] environmental imbalances and other causes. With these objectives in mind, various efforts at the international, national and local levels had been put in place at one point in time or another to boost agricultural production to make food available to the teaming population and the ever-increasing world population. The world population explosion witnessed as at the end of 1999, further increased the fear of those concerned about world food security. During this period, the global population exceeded 6 billion. [10] Leisinger stated that never before in human history had the population of the earth been as great as it is today, and never before had it grown so rapidly within one century. He stated further that the doubling of world population over the past 40 years had put enormous pressure on the natural systems that support all life on Earth. This pressure on natural resources also increased the burden of assuring food security for the entire world s people. [8] International Food Policy Research Institute stated in one of her reports, that about 73 million people would be added to world s population every year between 1995 and 2010 increasing it by 32 percent to reach 7.5 billion. However, much of this population growth is expected to occur in the developing world. If this prediction is to go by, then the food security situation of the developing world needs constant assessment via empirical research. [9] Joachim et al. wrote that there was a strong direct relationship between agricultural productivity, hunger and poverty. He stated further that three quarter of the world s poor people lived in rural areas and made their living from agriculture. He therefore, concluded that the higher the proportion of the rural population that obtained its benefits from subsistence farming (without the benefit of pro poor technologies and access to markets) the higher the incidence of food Corresponding Author: Dr. Olanike Deji, Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Faculty of Agriculture, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife, Osun State. Nigeria. odeji@oauife.edu.ng or odeji2001@yahoo.com Tel

2 insecurity. This is the situation of the majority of the developing countries today. Furthermore, it has been estimated that 80 million people in the sub- Saharan region are poor with 33million suffering from hunger, while 6million preschool children are malnourished. Nigeria, being one [8] of the developing countries in the region with the highest population of over 120million shares the largest burden of the gloomy picture of the food insecurity experienced in this region. The government of Nigeria at one time or the other had initiated programmes aimed at increasing the food production to the level which will guarantee food security and have net surplus for export. Some of these are the Farm Settlement Scheme (FSS) in 1959, the National Accelerated Food Production Project (NAFRI) of 1971, Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) of 1976, River Basin Development Authority (RBDA) of 1976 Green Revolution (GR) of 1979, Directorate of Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI) of 1986, Agricultural Development Programmes (ADP) of 1980 and the National Agricultural Land Development Authority (NALDA) of The outcome of these programmes to the country s food security had glaringly failed to yield the anticipated results. Food security means a state whereby every person has economic and physical power to access sufficient quality and quantity of food needed for productive healthy life. Lack of access to the body required quantity and quality of food for healthy living lead to malnutrition, which predisposes the body to diseases infections, such as HIV/AIDS, by lowering the body immunity. Food insecurity, hunger and malnutrition are closely linked with poverty with gender specific underpinning factors in Nigeria. Large family size without the corresponding level of income prevailing in the rural areas of Nigeria predisposes people, mostly women and children to malnutrition. Most of the socalled human development programmes in Nigeria have failed to cushion the effect of the looming poverty on the health and livelihood of the rural dwellers as planned. According to UNDP- United Nations Development Programme (2001), human development is about creating an environment in which people can develop their full potentials and lead productive, creative lives in accordance with their needs and interests. Furthermore, the report added that the most basic capabilities for human development are to lead long and healthy lives to be knowledgeable, to have access to the resources needed for a decent standard of living and to be able to participate in the life of the community. Without these, many choices are simply not available, and many opportunities in life remain inaccessible. In most sub-sahara Africa countries, especially in Nigeria, where agriculture is the mainstay of their economy, women are the majority of the agricultural work force, despite all the socio-cultural factors militating against their accessibility to basic economic resources needed for sustainable livelihood. Furthermore, the prevailing contemporary diseases such as HIV/AIDS, hit hard on women than men, yielding corresponding decline in agricultural production at both household and community levels. Consequently, many of the developing countries of the world, for example Nigeria, could not feed their populace with their internally produced food. In addition, there is a high rise in the number of female- headed households in Africa because of the impact of the HIV/AIDS pandemic on the household heads and other dependants, which in most cases leave the women as the caregivers, and eventually the heads of such households in most countries. However, the traditional widowhood practices, where the wife is put in serious and dehumanizing situation after her husband s death in many parts of Africa significantly contribute to sharp reduction in agricultural production at the household level. For example, in a Ugandan survey, one in four widows reported their properties seized after the death of their husbands (United Nations Children s Fund-UNICEF, 2003). Even though women are not traditionally permitted to inherit landed properties in some parts of Africa, for example Nigeria, there were reported cases of widow women deprived of their landed properties purchased with their own money after the death of their husbands. The denial of these basic human rights increases women s and girls vulnerability to sexual exploitation, abuse and HIV (UNAIDS-Joint United Nations Program for HIV/AIDS, 2004). HIV/AIDS is an acronym for Human Immuno- Deficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). HIV/AIDS is popularly transmitted via sexual intercourse with an infected person or through transfusion of infected blood, and/or through injection of contaminated needles and from an infected mother that might transmit the infection to her child during pregnancy and/or through breast-feeding. The total number of people living with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) rose in 2004 to reach its highest level ever, which was estimated as 39.4 million (the range being from 35.9 million 44.3 [13] million) people that were living with the virus. HIV/AIDS is one of the dreaded diseases in human history that has ever gained such an international popularity. [13] From the UNAIDS reports, sub-sahara Africa remained by far the worst affected region, with 25.4 million (23.4 million million) people living with HIV at the end of 2004, compared to the 24.4 million (22.5 million-27.3 million) in This statistical information indicated that just under two thirds (64%) of all people living with HIV/AIDS were in sub- Saharan Africa, and more than three quarters (76%) of all women living with HIV/AIDS in An estimated 3.1 million (2.7 million- 3.8 million) people in the sub-saharan Africa region became the newly infected population, while 22.3 million (2.1 million-2.6 million) died of HIV/AIDS. Among young people aged years, an estimated 8

3 Table 1: HIV Prevalence in Nigeria by state, Year S/N State 1991/ / / Adamawa Anambra Benue Borno Cross River Delta Edo Enugu Kaduna estimate Kano estimate Kwara Lagos Osun Oyo Plateau Sokoto Abia Not done Not done Not done Akwa Ibom Not done Not done Not done Bauchi Not done Not done Not done Bayelsa Not done Not done Not done Ebonyi Not done Not done Not done Ekiti Not done Not done Not done Gombe Not done Not done Not done Imo Not done Not done Not done Jigawa Not done Not done Kastina Not done Not done Not done Kebbi Not done Not done Not done Kogi Not done Not done Nasarawa Not done Not done Not done Niger Not done Not done Not done Ogun Not done Not done Ondo Not done Not done Not done Rivers Not done Not done Taraba Not done Not done Yobe Not done Not done Not done Zamfara Not done Not done Not done FCT Not done Not done Not done Source: Federal Ministry of Health, Nigeria National HIV Sero-prevalence Sentinel Survey 6.9 % ( % of women and 2.2% ( %) of men) were living with HIV/AIDS at the end of The scale and intensity of HIV/AIDS epidemic varied from one country to the other in West Africa. Overall HIV/AIDS prevalence is lowest in the Sahel countries and highest in countries such as Burkina Faso, Cote d Ivoire and Nigeria; with Nigeria having the third-largest number of people living with HIV/AIDS in the world (after South Africa and India). Cote d Ivoire recorded the highest level of HIV/AIDS 9

4 prevalence in West Africa since the beginning of the epidemic. Nigeria s 2003 HIV/AIDS sentinel survey put the national HIV/AIDS prevalence at 5% rose from the 1.8 % found in 1991 but roughly level with the 5.4% recorded in Prevalence levels are highest among young people particularly women aged years. However, there is regional as well as state level variation in the HIV/AIDS prevalence in Nigeria, probably because of the marked social and ethnocultural differences at these levels. For instance, the prevalence ranged from a low of 2.3% in the South west to a high of 7% in the North central parts. At State level, the variations are even greater. In Osun and Ogun, for instance, prevalence among pregnant women was 1.2% and 1.5% respectively, while in Benue it was [4] 9.3% and in Cross River 12% (Table 1). Feminization of HIV/AIDS is more apparent in sub-saharan Africa, with Nigeria being one of the most affected countries, where 57% of adults infected are women, and 75% of young people infected are women and girls. The probable under pinning factor is the prevailing high level of gender inequality in accessibility to resources and participation in decision making, with women at the disadvantage end in the country. Objectives of the study: The study was designed to review the following socio-cultural practices influencing the vulnerability of women to HIV/AIDS pandemic in Nigeria context: Decision on choice of marriage partner and older men marrying young girls syndrome; Decision on number of children to have in a marriage relationship; Decision on family planning; and Perception of the rural dwellers about HIV/AIDS in Nigeria. Theoretical background to the study: The related theories to the study are: the health believes theory, and the social learning (cognitive) theories. Health believe theory was postulated in 1958, in response to be failure of a free tuberculosis (TB) health screening program, by Hochbaum, Rosenstock and Kegels. It states that a person s health related behavior depends on the person s perception of four critical areas, which are: the severity of a potential illness, the person susceptibility to that illness, the benefit of taking the preventive action, and the barriers to taking the action. The theory was modified by Rosenstock et al. in 1988 to accommodate two other health related actions; namely: cues to action, and self-efficacy, to the [16] initial four constructs. Universiteit Tweste agreed that a person would take a health related action (e.g. use of condoms) if that person feels that a negative health condition, for example HIV/AIDS, can be avoided through that action. This underlines the perception and the eventual attitude of an individual to the preventive strategies to HIV/AIDS. However, holistic view of people as one group, as perceived in this theory may pose danger to the effective eradication of HIV/AIDS through, especially in a country that is multicultural and gender biased, such as Nigeria. Hence, the importance of social learning (cognitive) theory in explaining the theoretical background to the study. Social learning theory was later renamed as social cognitive theory. The theory postulates that behavior change is affected by environmental (socio-cultural) factors, personal factors and attributes of the behavior itself. The theory takes recognition of the importance of socio-cultural factors including gender specific factors, personal factors and attributes of the behavior (perception and attitudes), in the person s attitude [7] towards an issue. No wonder that Health submitted that all human activities revolve round perception. Perception is the bed rock of attitude which influences a person s decision to adopt or reject a view or an innovation. However, perception is rooted more or less in cultural norms and values imbibed by an individual, as well as on other related environmental factors. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Choice of marriage partner and older men marrying young girls syndrome in Nigeria: Choice of whom to marry should be individual and not influenced by any other person, because of the fragility of marriage, and its significance to societal development. However, the culture of many ethnic groups in Nigeria, do not permit a female child to make her choice in marriage without the influence of the parents or the relatives. In some ethnic groups, female children are given out in marriage as gift to friends, against their wills. In most cases, these friends are older in age than the girls, and would have had other wives. This contributes to the prevailing polygamous family type in most parts of Nigeria. Being older than the wife, there is the probability that, the husband would be involved in multiple sex and other high-risk sexual behaviors, which increases the probability of the individual being HIV/AIDS positive, which is a direct avenue for the innocent wives to be infected. Glynn et al. [6] submitted that married women are at the higher sexual risk than the non-married females of the same age. The culture of giving out female children as gift to friends is very rampant among the Hausas-the Northern part of Nigeria, which is one of the regions with high prevalence of HIV/AIDS. In addition, the culture of girls marrying at early age, which was known to be the peculiar tradition of the people in the Northern part of Nigeria, is now being practice in almost every parts of the nation. This has further dwindle the level of literacy among the female gender in Nigeria and much more increase the vulnerability of women and girls to infectious sexual diseases such as [6] HIV/AIDS. Glynn et al. reported that in some African countries, adolescent, married year-oldfemales have higher HIV infection levels than nonmarried sexually active females of the same age. Decision on number of children to have in marriage relationship in Nigeria: The number of children produced from a marriage union determines the family size. Decisions on number of children to give birth to, 10

5 number of years in between the children (child spacing), are traditionally men s in Nigeria. The higher the number of children that a woman gives birth to, the higher the probability or susceptibility to Sexually Transmitted Diseases, or HIV/AIDS infection. Culturally, there is usually no initial planning about the number of children to have in many families in Nigeria, possibly, due to the value placed on children, as a basis of prestige in the society. Infact, there is a traditional belief in Nigeria that it is a taboo to be counting the number of children produced in a family. In a typical Nigerian society, the higher the number of children a man or woman possesses, especially biologically, the higher his/her prestige in the society. Hence, the struggles to have as many children as possible in a family, which encourages the culture of marrying more than one wife by majority of the men in Nigeria. In addition, the culture of using children as sources of farm labor in Nigeria enhances the desire for high family size, thereby encouraging polygyny family type. Children are used as sources of labor for many agricultural production activities, because most of the agricultural activities were carried out manually. Hence, the number of children in a family is directly related to the family s farm size. Even though there is usually no concrete decision on number of children to have in a family, in few cases where such decision is taking, it is usually the husband s. Decision on family planning in family relationship in Nigeria: The recent campaign about the need to adopt family planning, especially in high fertile countries like Nigeria, in order to lower population growth rate, thereby lowering the risk of famine and malnutrition, is receiving popular responses from majority of households in Nigeria, even in the rural areas. However, the decision as to when and what method to adopt is highly gendered. Although, family planning service givers emphasize the involvement of both husband and wife before any service is rendered, in most cases it was found that, men are not co-operative, especially if the decision is not initiated by them. This increases the tendency of the woman bearing more children than the family could care for. Because of the complications, most men resolved into use of condom which can be done without consultation with any family planning service provider. Perceptions of the rural dwellers in Nigeria about HIV/AIDS: The views of people about the reality, causes, prevention and cure of HIV/AIDs in Nigeria, are still diverse, and most often with socio-cultural bias, especially in the rural areas where majority are illiterate and poor, without access to modern sources of information. Table 2: Perceptions of the rural dwellers about HIV/AIDS in Nigeria Perceptions Frequency Percentage Ways of transmission Through sexual intercourse Through blood contact Through sexual contact with prostitute Through kissing/shaking of hands Through witches and wizard Through violation of the laws of the land Through supernatural power Total 665* Those that is most likely to be infected Sex workers Youth Married All of the above No idea Possibility of identifying the affected person No Yes No idea Perceived Symptoms Loss of weight and leanness Frequent illness Change in skin color No idea Perception about the seriousness of AIDS Serious Not serious No response Reasons for saying that AIDS is not serious It can be easily cured Because you cannot see any living with aids It can not be transmitted easily It is an intension of government to gulp money Total 19* *Multiple responses Source: Extract from the field survey carried out in selected rural areas in Osun State of Nigeria, by Deji O.F. and Enuenwemba C. (2002) Due to the presence of modern communication mass media in the urban area, there is the possibility that the urban dwellers are more enlightened, especially on the issues of HIV/AIDs than their rural counterparts. It is unfortunate that despite the intensive enlightenment campaign about HIV/AIDs world-wide, there are still some misconceptions about HIV/AIDS in Nigeria (Table 2). Men are more prone to doubting the reality of HIV/AIDS, by claiming that the strategy is just to hinder them from enjoying their sexual life of multiple sex partnership. While some believe that it is an imported strategy from the western world to reduce population growth in highly fertile countries such as Nigeria, some believe that it is a rumour with the intension to compel men to adopt condom, thereby enhancing condom s sale in the country. There were also misconceptions about the preventive strategies, such as total abstinence, use of condoms, etc, which contribute to the rigorous spread of the disease in 11

6 Nigeria. This calls for intensified campaign programme in the rural areas of Nigeria to wipe off the wrong perceptions about HIV/AIDS, some of which are culturally based, if the need to eradicate the plague is necessary. AIDS is becoming greater threat in rural areas than in the urban communities; because it has been established empirically, that majority of the people living with HIV/AIDS often resign from the urban centers to live in the rural areas to lessen the shame associated with the disease. This is contributing to the increasing spread of the disease into the remotest villages, thereby cutting food production and [2] threatening the very life of the rural communities. According to the FAO report, AIDS undermines agricultural systems and affects the national situation and food security of the rural families. As adults fall ill and die, families face declining productivity as well as loss of knowledge about indigenous farming methods and loss of assets. The report further revealed that in the 25 most affected African countries, AIDS has killed seven million agricultural workers since 1985, and that it could kill 16 million more within the next 20 years. This calls for urgent interventions in order to revamp food production, thereby enhancing food security in the affected countries of the world. Implications for food security in Nigeria: Agriculture affects food security, the fate of national economies [13] and the sustainability of environmental assets. The report further revealed that agriculture account for 24% of Africa s gross domestic product, 40 % of its foreign exchange earnings and 70 % of its employment. Women are the majority in agriculture labor force in most African countries, especially in Nigeria. In addition, several research findings have confirmed the participation of women in all the stages of agricultural production activities in Nigeria. Due to their triple roles as producers, reproducers and community service providers, women are very significant to agricultural development. In addition they are central in reproducing future labour force. The task of socializing the children also rest on them more than, as it does on men. Women, individually and on group bases, participate in development of their communities in various forms, directly and indirectly. Directly by participating in physical community development projects, and indirectly by caring for their family members, thereby contributing to the present and future development of the community and the entire nation. They contribute, in both cash and kind towards the physical and non-physical development of their communities. Women interact more often with their environment than men, hence the task of maintaining their environment, which forms a basic aspect of sustainable community development lies in their hands. In recognition of the central role that women play in agricultural production, there has been a current shift in paradigm from people oriented to women oriented development program. This strategy focuses women as the target of introducing change into the country, especially at the grass roots. Unfortunately, there is no corresponding access to resources required for better livelihood for women in Nigeria. The HIV/AIDS epidemic, which is affecting women more than men, is reducing the agricultural Labor force directly and indirectly. Directly, it is reported that HIV/AIDS plague is currently more intense among women, because they are biologically and socio-culturally more susceptible to the disease and other STDs than men. Indirectly, women as the care givers at the family and community levels become affected whenever any member of the family is entrapped by HIV/AIDS. In most cases; those infected by the HIV/AIDs in the urban areas often migrate to the rural areas, with the burden of caring for them totally resting on the women, thereby reducing their chances of participating in agricultural production activities. In addition, the women left behind in urban areas become the emergency heads of the households, compulsorily meeting the needs of the family members left behind. In most cases, majority of the women living with HIV/AIDs are often abandoned in the rural areas by their husbands, to be taking care of by the older women and children in the rural areas. These contribute significantly to a loss of labour, reduced farming income and household assets and lowered [11] household-level food insecurity. This shows a shift of more responsibilities upon the women without the corresponding recognition and access to resources and inputs needed for agricultural enterprise, thereby increasing women s vulnerability to infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS. The traditionally imposed norms on women which limits their access to resources, and participation in decision makings at all levels of government, also prevent them from receiving first hand aids and assistance from the government, even in cases when the government is ready to assist them. Most of the programmes in the past that targeted rural women have been short lived, while some failed out rightly, because women were hindered from participating, and in some cases brushed asides by men, during the stages of the program. Women that struggled to participate and benefit from some of these programs were eventually deprived of such benefits. This scenario indicates the danger that HIV/AIDs is posting on agricultural labor force in Nigeria, which underpins the persistent poverty and food insecurity in the country. The UN s Food and Agriculture 12

7 Organization (FAO) estimated that AIDS would have claimed one-fifth or more of agricultural workers in [17,3] most countries in Southern Africa by Judging from the lower economic and social standards prevailing in most West African countries, especially Nigeria, the AIDS impact on agriculture would be worst in these countries than in Southern Africa by the year This calls for drastic steps to curb the gender inequity problems in decision making in Nigeria, which is exposing the women, who are the majority of the agricultural labor force, to the HIV/AIDS plagues. Conclusion: It is apparent from the foregoing that women s vulnerability to diseases such as HIV/AIDS is influenced by the prevailing negative socio-cultural practices against women in Nigeria, which invariably enhances food insecurity. However, effective strategy to eradicate this social menace called socio-cultural norms in Nigeria will require a policy change at all levels of government to mainstream gender- equity in [12] to decision-making procedure. REFERENCES 1. Agboola, P.O., Economic Analysis of Household level Food Insecurity and Coping Strategies in Southwestern Nigeria, Nigeria. First Seminar Paper (Ph.D.), Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Ibadan, pp: FAO, HIV/AIDS and Agriculture: An FAO Perspective. FAOINFO/SUSTDEV/index_en.htm. 3. FAO, 2003b. Mitigating the impact of HIV/AIDS on food security and rural poverty. Rome. In: UNAIDS 2004 report on the global AIDS epidemic, pp: Federal Ministry of Health Nigeria, National HIV Sero-prevalence Sentinel Survey Technical Report. Abuja, Federal Ministry of Health. 5. Federal Ministry of Health and National Action Committee on AIDS, Situational Analysis Report on STD/HIV/AIDS in Nigeria. March, Glynn, et al., Why do you Women have a much Higher Prevalence of HIV than young Men? A Study in Kisumu, Kenya and Ndola, Zambia. AIDS, 15(Suppl.4): S Health, I., Psychology of Perception. www. discover-your-mind.co.uk/. 8. IFPRI, Global Food Projections to 2020: Emerging Trend and Alternative Futures., pp: Joachim V.B., M.S. Swaninathan and M.W. Rosegrant, IFPRI Agriculture, Food Security, Nutrition and Millenium Development Goals. 10. Leisinger, Population growth and Food Security in the 21st Century. A publication of International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Food Policy Statement Number Topouzis, D., Addressing the Impact of HIV/AIDS on Ministries of Agriculture: Focus on Eastern and Southern Africa. Rome, FAO/UNAIDS. In: UNAIDS 2004 report on the Global AIDS Epidemic., pp: Towards Earth Summit, Gender Equity and Sustainable Development. Social Briefing No UNAIDS, Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic. Geneva, UNAIDS. 14. UNDP, HIV/AIDS: Implications for poverty reduction. New York. 15. UNICEF, The State of the World s children New York, UNICEF. 16. Universiteit Twente, Health Belief Model Villareal, M., Mitigating the Impact of HIV/AIDS on Food Security and Rural Poverty. Food and Agriculture Organisation, HIV/AIDS Programme. In: UNAIDS 2004 Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic., pp: