NMDE211 Energetics of Food

Transcription

1 NMDE211 Energetics of Food Week 1 Brief History: European traditional medicine, Chinese medicine and Ayurveda Nutritional Medicine Department Endeavour College of Natural Health 1

2 Session Summary Introduction to the concept of constitution and constitutional medicine. Introduction to the four humours of European traditional medicine. Introduction to the theory of yin and yang and the five elements of Chinese medicine. Introduction to the five elements and three doshas of Ayurveda. Introductory comparison/contrast of these three systems and how they are used in dietary prescription. Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 2

3 (Source: IndividualizedConstitutionalMedicine) Introduction to Constitution and Constitutional Medicine Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 3

4 Introduction Constitutional Medicine Some systems of healing such as European traditional medicine, Traditional Chinese Medicine and Ayurveda adopt a holistic approach which focuses on the individual person and his or her unique experience of disease or illness. These systems of healing are based on the belief that people are not identical in their make-up and, therefore, each person has his or her own special requirements for the maintenance of health and treatment of disease. They are underpinned by a constitutional approach. Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 4

5 Constitution Definition: Of or proceeding from the basic structure or nature of a person or thing; inherent. (The American Heritage Medical Dictionary, 2007) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 5

6 Constitutional Medicine Constitutional medicine is an approach to administering therapeutic agents based on the recognition of patterns of imbalance. Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 6

7 Body, Mind and Spirit European traditional medicine, Chinese medicine and Ayurveda are all based on theoretical frameworks that provide insight into the functioning of body, mind and spirit together. Understanding the mind-body type is essential to diagnosis and treatment. Emphasis is placed on the therapeutic effects of diet and healthy digestion, as well as techniques to balance behaviour and emotions. There is detailed understanding of biological rhythms, which form the basis for daily and seasonal routines. (Micozzi, 2011) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 7

8 Constitutional Medicine Healing can take place locally, such as a specific tissue or organ, but the aim of constitutional approaches is to heal at the level of the whole organism. (Ventegodt, Kandel & Merrick, 2005) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 8

9 Introduction to the Four Humours of European Traditional Medicine Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 9

10 The Four Humours Humoral theory began in Greece in the 5 th century BC with the body of work attributed to the physician, Hippocrates. It then continued with Galen, the Roman doctor who adopted the Hippocratic doctrine in the 2 nd century AD. For over 2000 years, humoral theory was the dominant medical paradigm in western countries. It provided a model for explaining most things about a person s character, psychology, medical history, tastes, appearance and behaviour. (Arikha, 2007) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 10

11 The Four Humours ( Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 11

12 The Four Humours Man's body has blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. These make up his body and through them he feels illness or enjoys health. When all the humours are properly balanced and mingled, he feels the most perfect health. Illness occurs when one of the humours is in excess, or is reduced in amount, or is entirely missing from the body. (British Broadcasting Corporation, 2014) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 12

13 The Four Humours Humours Elements Qualities Temperament Associated organs Blood Air Hot and wet Sanguine Heart Phlegm Water Cold and wet Phlegmatic Brain Yellow bile Fire Hot and dry Choleric Liver Black bile Earth Cold and dry Melancholic Spleen (Jackson, 2001) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 13

14 The Four Temperaments Temperament traits can be defined as constitutionally determined dispositional characteristics that influence the manner in which a person s actions are expressed (Stelmack & Stalikas, 1991). The Four Temperaments are the basic constitutional body-mind types of Greek Medicine from which European traditional medicine developed. Each of the Four Temperaments can be recognised by certain basic traits of physique, physiology, digestion and metabolism, personality and character. Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 14

15 The Four Temperaments The Four Temperaments is a proto-psychological theory that suggests that there are four fundamental personality types: Sanguine (optimistic leader-like); choleric (badtempered or irritable), melancholic (analytical and quiet), and phlegmatic (relaxed and peaceful). Most formulations include the possibility of mixtures of the types. Knowing a person s constitutional type was essential in this system in order to give advice on what and how to eat, lifestyle practices to adopt and medications to take for optimum health maintenance and disease prevention. Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 15

16 Four Temperaments ( Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 16

17 Humoral Medicine and Diet Diet was very important in humoral medicine. Each food was classified according to its qualities. Overindulgence of certain foods was believed to produce excessive quantities of one particular humour. Warm, moist food (e.g. chicken broth) was considered to be particularly suitable for invalids. Fish was cold and wet and believed to be difficult to digest. Meat and wine was believed to be good for making blood. (Jackson, 2001) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 17

18 Introduction Chinese Medicine Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 18

19 Introduction Chinese Medicine Chinese medicine is rooted in the ancient philosophy of Taoism and dates back more than 2,500 years. Chinese medicine encompasses many different practices, including acupuncture, moxibustion (burning an herb above the skin to apply heat to acupuncture points), Chinese herbal medicine, Tui Na (Chinese therapeutic massage), dietary therapy, and Tai Chi and Qi Gong (practices that combine specific movements or postures, coordinated breathing, and mental focus). (National Centre for Complementary and Integrative Health, 2013) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 19

20 Introduction Chinese Medicine Sun Shu Mao ( ), a Chinese physician, published the pioneer Chinese diet classic in 652 AD entitled One Thousand Ounces of Gold Classic (Lu, 1986) To treat an ailment, first use nutritional therapy. Only when that is inadequate should drugs be used. (Lam, 2006) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 20

21 Introduction Chinese Medicine Yin and Yang The basic principles of Chinese medicine are rooted in the Taoist philosophy of yin and yang. These two polar opposites organise and explain the ongoing process of natural change and transformation in the universe. In the theory of yin and yang, all things and phenomena of the cosmos contain these two complementary aspects. The energy field between the poles of yin and yang gives rise to the universal primal force, qi. (Kastner, 2009) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 21

22 Introduction Chinese Medicine Yin and Yang Yin Moon Shadow/night Dark Passive Water Down Structure Right Cold Plant-based foods Yang Sun Light/day Light Active Fire Up Function Left Hot Animal-based foods (Kastner, 2009) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 22

23 Introduction Chinese Medicine Yin and Yang Five principles of yin and yang: All things have two facets: a yin aspect and a yang aspect. Any yin or yang aspect can be further divided into yin and yang. Yin and yang mutually create each other. Yin and yang control each other. Yin and yang transform into each other. (Kaptchuk, 2000) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 23

24 Yin and Yang: Mutually creative and transformative o o (Image sourced Imgur, 2017) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 24

25 Introduction Chinese Medicine Qi The Chinese symbol for qi is formed by two elements one element means air, breath, steam ; the other element means rice, grains. According to ancient Chinese belief, vital or life force qi (sheng qi) is the primary source of all living processes in the cosmos. The concept and meaning of qi is only partially translatable into Western languages. (Kastner, 2009) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 25

26 Qi Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 26

27 Introduction Chinese Medicine Qi The Qi that is directly involved in a person s life has three sources: Original Qi (Yuan Qi) also called prenatal qi transmitted by parents to their children at conception. This qi is partly responsible for an individual s inherited constitution. Food Qi (Gu Qi) which is derived from the digestion of food. Gathering Qi (Zong Qi) which is formed from Food Qi interacting with Air. (Kaptchuk, 2000) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 27

28 Introduction Chinese Medicine The Five Elements The Taoist model of the Five Phases (or Elements) is an extension of the concept of yin and yang. This model relates the entire spiritual, emotional, material and energetic phenomena of the universe to five basic phases - earth, metal, water, wood and fire These phases do not exist in isolation from each other, but influence each other in a constant, dynamic interaction. (Kastner, 2009) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 28

29 Introduction Chinese Medicine The Five Elements Element Earth Metal Water Wood Fire Correspondences Fertility, ripening, harvest, inner core (centre), stability (being grounded), sweet flavour Reflection, change, death, acrid flavour Flow, clarity, cold, birth, salty flavour Growth, bending, childhood, expansion, sour flavour Heat, flare-up, upbearing, bitter flavour (Kastner, 2009) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 29

30 Introduction Chinese Medicine Seasons Season Spring Summer Late Summer Autumn Winter Element Wood Fire Earth Metal Water Environmental Influence Wind Heat Dampness Dryness Cold Development Birth Growth Transformation Harvest Storing Colour Green Red Yellow White Black/dark Taste Sour Bitter Sweet Pungent Salty Orientation East South Middle West North Grain Wheat, oats Corn, amaranth Millet, barley Rice Beans (Pitchford, 2002) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 30

31 Introduction to the Five Elements and Three Doshas of Ayurveda Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 31

32 Introduction - Ayurveda The term Ayurveda combines the Sanskrit words ayur (life) and veda (science or knowledge). Ayurvedic medicine, as practiced in India, is one of the oldest systems of medicine in the world. Many Ayurvedic practices predate written records and were handed down by word of mouth. Three ancient books known as the Great Trilogy were written in Sanskrit more than 2,000 years ago and are considered the main texts on Ayurvedic medicine: Caraka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, and Astanga Hridaya. (National Centre for Complementary and Integrative Health, 2015) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 32

33 Introduction - Ayurveda Ayurveda considers that the universe is made up of combinations of the five elements (pancha mahabhutas). These are akasha (ether), vayu (air), teja (fire), aap (water) and prithvi (earth). The five elements can be seen to exist in the material universe at all scales of life and in both organic and inorganic things. In biological systems, including human, elements are coded into three forces which govern all life processes. These three forces (kapha, pitta and vata) are known as the three doshas or simply the tridosha. (Patwardhan, Warude, Pushpangadan, & Bhatt, 2005) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 33

34 Introduction - Ayurveda In Ayurveda, humans are seen as a microcosm of nature and as such are also comprised of the five basic elements. The five elements manifest within the body as the Tridosha (dosha means protective, or when out of balance, disease-producing). The Tridosha are known as Vata, Pitta and Kapha. These three control all biological, psychological and physiopathological functions of the body, mind and consciousness. Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 34

35 Introduction - Ayurveda Each dosha is composed of two elements: Vata is composed of space and air, pitta of fire and water, and kapha of water and earth. Vata dosha has the mobility and quickness of space and air. Pitta dosha has the metabolic qualities of fire. Kapha dosha has the stability and solidity of water and earth. The tridosha regulate every physiological and psychological process in the living organism. (Patwardhan, Warude, Pushpangadan, & Bhatt, 2005) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 35

36 Introduction - Ayurveda The interplay among the doshas determines the qualities and conditions of the individual. A harmonious state of the three doshas creates balance and health; an imbalance, which might be an excess (vriddhi) or deficiency (kshaya), manifests as a sign or symptom of disease. (Patwardhan, Warude, Pushpangadan, & Bhatt, 2005) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 36

37 Introduction - Ayurveda For each dosha, there is a balanced and imbalanced expression. Balanced Vata - a person is lively and creative. When there is too much movement in the system a person tends to experience anxiety, insomnia, dry skin, constipation and difficulty focusing. Balanced Pitta - a person is warm, friendly, disciplined, a good leader and a good speaker. When Pitta is out of balance a person tends to be compulsive, irritable and may suffer from indigestion or an inflammatory condition. Balanced Kapha - a person is sweet, supportive and stable. When Kapha is out of balance a person may experience sluggishness, weight gain and sinus congestion. Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 37

38 Introduction - Ayurveda Ayurveda focuses on the unique qualities of individuals, pointing out that diseases differ mainly because people are so different. Ayurveda teaches that all health-related measures whether an exercise program, dietary plan or herbal supplement must be based on an understanding of an individual s unique mind-body constitution or dosha. By knowing a patient s dosha, an Ayurvedic practitioner can tell which diet, physical activities, and medical therapies are most likely to help, and which might do no good or even cause harm. Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 38

39 Introduction - Ayurveda Watch this short video to gain a better understanding of Ayurvedic nutrition philosophy. Ayurveda Nutrition Ayurvedic Nutrition by definition and perspective. (5.12 minutes) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 39

40 Case Studies Viewed Through Each of the Systems Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 40

41 Case Study Humoral Medicine Sarah Age 44 years old, overweight (BMI 29 kg/m 2 ) Carries excess weight mainly on hips, thighs and buttocks (pear shaped) Outgoing, social and gregarious She loves to party and drinks spirits when she goes out. She has a hearty appetite and usually has good digestion. She craves rich fatty foods, especially desserts and rich, heavy sauces. She has a pink rosy, blushing complexion. (Continued on next slide) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 41

42 Case Study Humoral Medicine As a child she suffered from nose bleeds. For the past few months she has been experiencing dysmenorrhoea and heavy menstrual bleeding. Her recent blood tests revealed elevated blood glucose and high cholesterol, and she also has recorded high blood pressure. According to the Humoral Medicine system, Sarah is classified as having a Sanguine temperament and her current diet and lifestyle choices are aggravating her constitutional type. Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 42

43 Case Study Humoral Medicine The Sanguine temperament is prone to excesses of Blood. When Blood gets excessive, it tends to become stagnated and/or congested; when this happens, its circulation and vital function are compromised. In order to restore balance Sarah will be advised to cut down on the amount and frequency of her meals, opt for light foods (such as a vegetarian diet), start exercising (social or team exercise is likely to be best). Sanguine is characterised by the qualities of Warm and Moist (or Hot and Wet) so foods and practices that are Cooling and Dry will be recommended to restore balance. Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 43

44 Case Study Chinese Medicine Steve Age 39 years old; moderately obese. One-year history of recurrent abdominal cramps, alternating diarrhoea and constipation. Flare-ups occurring on average every three days, aggravated by stress and caffeine. Main source of stress is new engineering job. Diagnosed by a gastroenterologist as having irritable bowel syndrome and gastroesophageal reflux disease. Medications have been prescribed. (Continued next slide) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 44

45 Case Study Chinese Medicine All investigations, including colonoscopy, were negative (NAD). History of childhood mild asthma with allergy to dog and cat dander. Rarely needed to use his inhaler. Mother diagnosed with diverticulosis, and one sister had peanut allergy. Non-smoker, he likes sweets and cold drinks. Quiet and nervous demeanour, perspires easily. The tongue is swollen, with a red tip and anterior edges. The pulse is slippery, with diminished Lung, Spleen and Kidney positions. (Lam, 2006) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 45

46 Case Study Chinese Medicine Chinese medical syndromes: Spleen (and Kidney) deficiency, Qi stagnation, and Stomach Qi retroflow. Treatment plan: regular and smaller meals; simplify the diet; eliminate coffee; reduce sweets and avoid cold and damp foods (such as salads); and instead opt for more cooked vegetables and fish, with some very lean meats. Excessive sweet, cold and damp foods damage the Spleen system, according to Chinese medicine. Acupuncture, exercise and stress management techniques were also prescribed. (Lam, 2006) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 46

47 Case Study - Ayurveda Sandra: Age: 60 years, height 161 cm, weight 48 kg Constitution: Vata Retired 6 months ago She has had no serious illness, but for most of her life has suffered frequent indigestion, variable appetite, flatulence and alternating bouts of constipation and loose stools. She has dry skin, a dry cough and often feels cold, especially her feet. (Continued next slide) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 47

48 Case Study - Ayurveda She sleeps fitfully and feels weary most of the time. She has general anxiety that makes it difficult for her to relax. Sandra has a coated tongue and often has bad breath. She has little routine in her life, going to bed at any time between 8 pm and midnight depending on how she feels. Occasionally she takes a walk. She says she does no other exercise, but is always running around. Her mind jumps from idea to idea and she starts more projects than she will ever finish. (Morrison, 2013) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 48

49 Case Study -Ayurveda Sandra s constitution is Vata and she is displaying many behaviours, signs and symptoms that indicate excessive Vata. Retirement has contributed to the excessive Vata because Sandra now has less routine. The bad breath and coating on her tongue indicate ama due to poor digestion arising from increased Vata and poor food combinations. Sandra needs to follow Vata-pacifying practises and emphasise Vata-pacifying foods in her diet. Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 49

50 Examples of Foods Viewed Through Each of the Systems Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 50

51 Food Classification System of Medicine European traditional medicine Chinese medicine Ayurveda Food Qualities Hot and Cold Wet and Dry Heavy and Light Increase or decrease blood, phlegm, yellow bile or black bile Yin and yang Hot, warm, neutral, cool, cold Sweet, sour, bitter, salty and acrid (pungent) Upbearing, floating, down-bearing, falling Organ effect: Spleen/pancreas, stomach, lung, large intestine, kidney, bladder, liver, gallbladder, heart, small intestine. Hot and cold Sweet, sour, bitter, salty, pungent, astringent Increase or decrease vata, pitta or kapha. Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 51

52 Lamb Humoral Medicine In Greek humoral medicine, red meat is generally considered to be the heaviest and hardest to digest and also considered to leave toxic residues after digestion. It can easily aggravate bilious problems. The heaviest is beef, followed by pork and lamb. To neutralize the toxins from red meat and aid in its digestion, it should be either cooked with or eaten with hot, pungent spices and condiments like cloves, mustard, black pepper, garlic, onions or horseradish. (Greekmedicine.net, 2015) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 52

53 Lamb Chinese Medicine Thermal nature Flavour Organ network Direction Element Effect Contraindications LAMB CHINESE MEDICINE PERSPECTIVE Warm to hot Sweet Spleen, kidney Upbearing/floating Earth Warms centre burner and kidney network, supplements qi and blood, supports jing Heat symptoms agitation, insomnia, reddened itching skin disorders, excessive menstrual bleeding. (continued on next slide) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 53

54 Lamb Chinese Medicine Beneficial effects Cooking method LAMB - CHINESE MEDICINE PERSPECTIVE Lamb is especially recommended during the cold months as a warming food, served well spiced. Very good for kidney yang deficiency (vacuity): feeling of coldness in body; cold extremities; aversion to cold; weakness or pain in legs, back or knees; increase of symptoms with cold; weak libido; impotence; frequent nocturnal urination with clear urine. Blood deficiency (vacuity) with cold symptoms after childbirth: abdominal pains, reduced milk flow, cold lower extremities. (Lamb with fresh ginger.) Stomach and spleen yang deficiency (vacuity): lack of appetite, exhaustion, persistent chills, cold extremities, fatigue. Fried/roasted, grilled or well-cooked in liquid with ginger, Chinese leek (garlic chives), walnuts, garlic and carrots, preferably seasoned with rosemary, thyme and oregano. (Kastner, 2009) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 54

55 Lamb - Ayurveda In Ayurveda, lamb is classified as sweet. It is not recommended for Vata, Pitta or Kapha. It s qualities are described as cool, heavy to digest and contributing to weight gain. Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 55

56 Lamb - Discussion: o How is Lamb viewed as similar in the systems? o How is Lamb viewed differently? o From what you have learnt so far can you rationalise why these similarities or differences exist? Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 56

57 Spinach Humoral Medicine In the Humoral Medicine system green leafy vegetables are considered to be good for building the blood. Bitter greens are considered to be good for promoting bile flow and supporting the liver. (Greekmedicine.net, 2015) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 57

58 Spinach Chinese Medicine Thermal nature Flavour Recommended for Contraindications SPINACH CHINESE MEDICINE PERSPECTIVE Cool Sweet Lubricates dryness, arrests bleeding, used as a blood tonic; affects large and small intestines. Has a sliding nature which facilitates internal body movements such as bowel action and urination and thus is recommended for constipation and urinary difficulty. Spinach is good for many hot skin eruptions and itchy skin (cook with seaweed or kelp). Not recommended for persons with premature ejaculation or diarrhoea (because it is sliding, also referred to as glossy). (Kastner, 2009) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 58

59 Spinach - Ayurveda Thermal nature Flavour Recommended for Contraindications SPINACH AYURVEDIC PERSPECTIVE Cool Pungent Spinach cools, nourishes and soothes with light, dry attributes and a pungent vipak. In large quantities it is aggravating to pitta and vata and best served to kapha. Small amounts are well tolerated by all and are useful therapeutically in the treatment of lung and liver disorders. Aggravating to pitta and vata in large quantities. (Morningstar, 1991) Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 59

60 Spinach - Discussion: o How is spinach viewed as similar in the systems? o How is spinach viewed differently? o From what you have learnt so far can you rationalise why these similarities or differences exist? Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 60

61 Session Summary Introduction to the concept of constitution and constitutional medicine. Introduction to the four humours of European traditional medicine. Introduction to the theory of yin and yang and the five elements of Chinese medicine. Introduction to the five elements and three doshas of Ayurveda. Introductory comparison/contrast of these three systems and how they are used in dietary prescription Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 61

62 References Arikha, N. (2007). Passions and tempers: A history of the humours. New York, NY: Ecco Harper Collins. British Broadcasting Corporation History: Greek knowledge about the body and disease. Retrieved from rev2.shtml Greek Medicine.net. (2015). The Four Humors. Retrieved from: Jackson, W. A. (2001). A short guide to humoral medicine. Trends In Pharmacological Sciences, 22(9), Kaptchuk, T. (2000). The web that has no weaver: Understanding Chinese medicine (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill Education. Kastner, J Chinese nutrition therapy: Dietetics in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) (2nd ed.). Stuttgart, Germany: Georg Thieme Verlag. Lam, C. (2006). Nutrition and Medical Acupuncture: Three Case Presentations. Journal Of Orthomolecular Medicine, 21(4), Retrieved from Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 62

63 References Lu, H. (1986). Chinese system of food cures: Prevention and remedies. New York, NY: Sterling Publishing. Micozzi, M. (2011). Vital healing: Energy, mind and spirit in traditional medicines of India, Tibet and the Middle East-Middle Asia. London, England: Singing Dragon,. Morningstar, A. (1991). The Ayurvedic cookbook: A personalised guide to good nutrition and health. Santa Fe, NM: Lotus Press. Morrison, J. (2013). The book of Ayurveda: An interactive guide to using Indian healing for personal wellbeing. London, England: Octopus Publishing. National Centre for Complementary and Integrative Health. (2013). Traditional Chinese Medicine: An Introduction. Retrieved from National Centre for Complementary and Integrative Health. (2015). Ayurvedic Medicine: An Introduction. Retrieved from Patwardhan, B., Warude, D., Pushpangadan, P., & Bhatt, N. (2005). Ayurveda and traditional Chinese medicine: a comparative overview. Evidence-Based Complementary And Alternative Medicine: Ecam, 2(4), Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 63

64 References Pitchford, P. (2002). Healing with whole foods: Asian traditions and modern nutrition (3rd ed.). Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books. Stelmack, R. M., & Stalikas, A. (1991). Galen and the humour theory of temperament. Personality And Individual Differences, 12(3), The American Heritage medical dictionary. (2007). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Ventegodt, S., Kandel, I., & Merrick, J. (2005). Principles of holistic medicine: Quality of life and health. New York, NY: Hippocrates Scientific Publications. World Health Organisation. (2015). Traditional and complementary medicine. Retrieved from Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 64

65 Endeavour College of Natural Health endeavour.edu.au 65