Hormones and Behavior

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1 Hormones an Behavior 60 (2011) Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Hormones an Behavior journal homepage: Genere occupational interests: Prenatal anrogen effects on psychological orientation to Things versus People Ariene M. Beltz a, Jane L. Swanson b, Sheri A. Berenbaum a, a The Pennsylvania State University, Unite States b Southern Illinois University Carbonale, Unite States article info abstract Article history: Receive 23 January 2011 Revise 27 May 2011 Accepte 3 June 2011 Available online 12 June 2011 Keywors: Anrogens Interests Occupations Sex ifferences Congenital arenal hyperplasia STEM careers There is consierable interest in unerstaning women's unerrepresentation in science, technology, engineering, an mathematics careers. Career choices have been shown to be riven in part by interests, an gener ifferences in those interests have generally been consiere to result from socialization. We explore the contribution of sex hormones to career-relate interests, in particular stuying whether prenatal anrogens affect interests through psychological orientation to Things versus People. We examine this question in iniviuals with congenital arenal hyperplasia (), who have atypical exposure to anrogens early in evelopment, an their unaffecte siblings (total N=125 age 9 to 26 years). Females with ha more interest in Things versus People than i unaffecte females, an variations among females with reflecte variations in their egree of anrogen exposure. Results provie strong support for hormonal influences on interest in occupations characterize by working with Things versus People Elsevier Inc. All rights reserve. Sex ifferences in occupations are a subject of intense scientifican public interest, with particular concern about women's unerrepresentation in science, technology, engineering, an mathematics (STEM) careers. Many explanations of this isparity have been offere, incluing cultural stereotypes about what is acceptable for the sexes, situational cues that inuce ientity threat, social barriers that hiner women's success, an personal characteristics, such as cognitive abilities an interests (reviewe in Ceci an Williams, 2007; Halpern et al., 2007). Particular attention has focuse on interests that are stable an preict career choices, even across many years. A meta-analysis showe vocational interests to be strongly consistent from early aolescence to mile aulthoo (Low et al., 2005). In fact, vocational interests in high school an college have been shown to preict occupations up to 30 years later (Hansen, 2005; Rottinghaus et al., 2007). This research was supporte in part by the National Institutes of Health Grant HD We thank the following people who contribute to this work: Kristina Bryk coorinate the project that prouce these ata an assiste with manuscript preparation; Stephen Duck coe meical recors; he an Deborah Eiin, Erica Eugster, Reema Habiby, Davi Klein, Bernar Silverman, Kumu Sane, Neil White, an Davi Wyatt generously provie access to their patients; Lori Alegnani collecte an processe ata; grauate an unergrauate research assistants processe ata; Juith Elaine Owen Blakemore, Theresa Vescio, Norman Henerson, an two anonymous reviewers provie helpful comments on the manuscript. We are particularly grateful to the patients an their families for their participation in the stuy. Corresponing author at: The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, Unite States. aress: sab31@psu.eu (S.A. Berenbaum). Gener ifferences in occupational interests have generally been consiere to result from socialization (Eccles, 1994). For example, chilren's occupational interests an career choices are linke to their parents' expectations: parents' gener-type occupational expectations for their 15-year-ol chilren preicte chilren's gener-type occupational expectations 2 years later; moreover, parents' expectations about gener-type occupations for their chilren at age 17 preicte the chilren's actual career choices at age 28 (Jacobs et al., 2006). Further, situational cues may affect interest in STEM careers through social ientity threat (Murphy et al., 2007). Genere occupational interests are also influence by sex-relate biological factors, particularly sex hormones such as anrogens. These hormones are present early in evelopment an organize the brain, as stuies in nonhuman animals show (Wallen, 2009). In people, prenatal anrogen levels an gener socialization are typically confoune, but their effects can be isentangle in females with congenital arenal hyperplasia (), who are expose to higher than normal (sex-atypical) prenatal anrogen levels but who are reare an ientify as female. Consistent with hormone effects on interests, females with are consierably more intereste than are females without in maletype toys, leisure activities, an occupations, from chilhoo through aulthoo (reviewe in Blakemore et al., 2009; Cohen-Benahan et al., 2005); ault females with also engage more in male-type occupations than o females without (Frisén et al., 2009). Maletype interests of females with are associate with egree of anrogen exposure, which can be inferre from genotype or isease characteristics (Berenbaum et al., 2000; Meyer-Bahlburg et al., 2006; Norenström et al., 2002). Interests of males with are similar to those X/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserve. oi: /j.yhbeh

2 314 A.M. Beltz et al. / Hormones an Behavior 60 (2011) of males without because both are expose to high (sex-typical) prenatal anrogens an are reare as boys. Females with o not provie a perfect test of anrogen effects on genere characteristics because they iffer from females without in other ways; most notably they have masculinize genitalia that might affect their socialization. But, there is no evience that parents treat girls with in a more masculine or less feminine way than they treat girls without (Norenström et al., 2002; Pasterski et al., 2005). Further, some finings from females with have been confirme in typical iniviuals whose postnatal behavior has been associate with prenatal hormone levels measure in amniotic flui. Amniotic testosterone levels were foun to correlate positively with parent-reporte male-type play in girls an boys at ages 6 to 10 years (Auyeung et al., 2009). The psychological mechanism through which anrogen affects interests has not been well-investigate, but there is some consensus that sex ifferences in interests reflect an orientation towar people versus things (Diekman et al., 2010) or similar constructs, such as organic versus inorganic objects (Benbow et al., 2000). The Things People istinction is, in fact, the major conceptual imension unerlying the measurement of the most wiely-use moel of occupational interests (Hollan, 1973; Preiger, 1982); it has also been use to represent leisure interests (Kerby an Ragan, 2002) an personality (Lippa, 1998). For example, occupational interests measure by the Strong Interest Inventory (Harmon et al., 1994) are classifie into six imensions (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional, RIASEC), that form two higher-orer, orthogonal, bipolar factors, Things People an Data Ieas. The Things People factor isplays a large sex ifference, =.93, whereas the Data Ieas factor oes not, =.10 (Su et al., 2009). Boys an men prefer occupations relate to objects (e.g., auto mechanic, chemist), whereas girls an women prefer occupations involving work with people (e.g., ay care worker, art teacher). In this stuy we teste whether prenatal anrogen effects on occupational interests reflect the unerlying psychological imension of Things versus People. Specifically, we hypothesize that females with woul have masculinize occupational interests, an thus, compare to unaffecte females, woul have more interest in Things People. Moreover, scores of females with on interest in Things People were hypothesize to be correlate with their egree of prenatal anrogen exposure. 1. Metho 1.1. Participants Females an males with congenital arenal hyperplasia () ue to 21-hyroxylase eficiency were stuie as part of an ongoing project on anrogen effects on psychological evelopment. They were recruite through university-affiliate peiatric enocrinology clinics in the Miwestern Unite States, an compare to their unaffecte siblings. Occupational interests were assesse in 125 iniviuals: 46 females with, 21 unaffecte sisters, 27 males with, an 31 unaffecte brothers. Participants age from 9 to 26 years (M=16.0, SD=4.5); groups i not iffer in age, F(3, 121)=.65, pn.05. Because not all participants with ha a same-sex sibling, siblings of males an females with were combine to form control groups. Participants represente a variety of socioeconomic backgrouns an most were Caucasian. Other finings from the larger stuy are summarize elsewhere (e.g., Blakemore et al., 2009). The main hypotheses concerne females, but males were also teste to examine specificity of finings. Degree of prenatal anrogen exposure was inexe by two features of the isease (Speiser, 2001), rate from meical recors (see Berenbaum et al., 2000 foretails).(1)typeofwasclassifie from least to most severe (Speiser, 2001): nonclassical (NC), simple virilizing (SV), mil saltwasting (SW), an severe SW. SW- require elevate plasma renin activity for age an responsiveness to mineralocorticoi therapy. Classification as mil SW- require that all measurements of serum soium be at least 129 mmol/l, an that there be no episoes of hypotension or shock; classification as severe SW- require that serum soium in the neonatal perio be less than 129 mmol/l, or that there be at least one episoe of hypotension or shock. Information on isease type was available for 43 of 46 females with (6 NC, 5 SV, 10 mil SW, 22 severe SW) an all 27 males with (5 NC, 1 SV, 5 mil SW, 16 severe SW). (2) Genital virilization at birth was rate on the Praer scale (Praer, 1954), which ranges from 0 (typical female genitalia) through 6 (typical male genitalia). This information was available for 37 of 46 females with ; scores range from 0 to 4 (M=2.4, SD=1.5). The two inices of prenatal anrogen exposure ( type an Praer rating) were significantly relate for females with, r(37)=.73, pb Measures an proceure The Occupational Interests Inventory (OII) was evelope for this stuy because stanar instruments are intene only for oler aolescents an aults. The OII parallels the Strong Interest Inventory (Harmon et al., 1994) an measures the same imensions (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional, RIASEC) in participants of a wie age range. Participants rate their interest in each of 64 jobs by inicating whether they woul islike (0), be inifferent to (1), or like (2) oing that type of work. A composite score was create for each RIASEC imension by averaging items representing that imension (see Table 1), excluing 17 items enorse by less than 10% of the sample; high scores inicate high interest. The Conventional imension was exclue because it ha few items an low reliability, consistent with other finings (Lippa, 1998). The remaining five RIASEC scores were internally consistent (see Table 1). 2. Results Descriptive ata an group comparisons (from inepenent samples t-tests) for the five RIASEC composite scores are presente in Table 2. There were large sex ifferences in four of the five RIASEC imensions examine: unaffecte females reporte more interest in Artistic, Social, an Enterprising occupations than i unaffecte males, whereas unaffecte males reporte more interest in Realistic occupations than i unaffecte females. Females with also reporte more interest in Realistic an Investigative occupations than i unaffecte females; ifferences were moerate in size. Males with an unaffecte males i not iffer significantly on any of the five RIASEC imensions. The valiity of the OII for assessing the Things People istinction was etermine by correcting the five RIASEC composite scores for overall response set (tenency to enorse items) an then conucting a principal components analysis with varimax rotation to extract two components (Lippa, 1998). Response set correction involve subtracting a participant's average response (mean of five RIASEC composite scores) from each composite score. Groups i not iffer in response set, F(3, 121) =1.29, pn.05. The five RIASEC imensions efine the two expecte components that coul be labele Things People an Data Ieas; Fig. 1 shows the location of the imensions in two-component space. The only anomaly was the Artistic imension: it loae on Data more than Ieas, perhaps reflecting the meaning of art for chilren versus aults. The Artistic imension was appropriately represente on Things People. The Things People component score was use for subsequent analyses; higher scores represent a preominance of interest in Things, an lower scores a greater interest in People. The Data Ieas component was not consiere further because it shows no sex ifference. Anrogen effects on interests were examine by comparing groups on Things People using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), with factors of sex (male, female) an conition (, unaffecte). The primary hypothesis was teste in the interaction between sex an conition,

3 A.M. Beltz et al. / Hormones an Behavior 60 (2011) Table 1 Occupational Interest Inventory items an imensions. Dimension OII item α Dimension OII item α Realistic 10. Auto mechanic.84 Social 26. Day care worker Auto racer 28. Elementary school teacher 16. Builing contractor 31. High school teacher 18. Carpenter 37. Manager, chil care center 27. Electronics technician 46. Playgroun irector 29. Farmer 53. Religious leaer a 30. Forest ranger 55. School principal 36. Jet pilot 58. Social worker 39. Mechanical engineer 59. Special eucation teacher 51. Rancher 63. Vocational counselor a Investigative 7. Astronomer.79 Enterprising 3. Avertising Author of technical books a 12. Autosalesperson a 14. Biologist 17. Buyer of merchanise 21. Chemist 24. Customer service representative a 45. Physician 33. Hotel manager 56. Scientific illustrator a 38. Manager, clothing store 57. Scientific research worker 50. Public relations irector a 61. Surgeon 52. Realtor a Artistic 2. Actor/Actress Sales manager 4. Art museum irector 60. Stockbroker 5. Art teacher 62. Travel agency manager 6. Artist Conventional b 1. Accountant Author of novels 13. Bank teller a 19. Cartoonist 15. Bookkeeper a 22. Clothes esigner 20. Cashier in bank a 25. Dance teacher 23. Computer operator 35. Interior ecorator 32. Hospital recors clerk a 40. Musician 34. Income tax accountant a 43. Orchestra conuctor a 41. Office clerk a 44. Photographer 42. Office manager 47. Poet 48. Private secretary a 49. Professional ancer 64. Wor processor a a b Inicates an item remove ue to less than 10% enorsement. Inicates all items in a imension remove ue to poor reliability. which was expecte to result from a specific patternofgroupmeans reflecting interest in Things relative to People: unaffecte femalesbfemales with bmales with =unaffecte males. Results supporte our hypotheses, as shown in Table 3. There was a significant sex ifference (females ha lower scores than males), F(1, 121)=47.16, pb.001, partial η 2 =.28, no significant effect of conition, F(1, 121)=2.49, pn.05, partial η 2 =.02, an a significant interaction between sex an conition, F(1, 121) =5.51, pb.05, partial η 2 =.04. The interaction was probe with t-tests using Type I error of.01 to correct for multiple comparisons. Statistical test results an 's are shown in Table 3. Interest in Things relative to People was higher in females with than in unaffecte females, an lower than in males ( an unaffecte). Unaffecte females showe less interest in Things relative to People than males. Males with an without were not significantly ifferent. There were no between-group ifferences in variability (pn.05 for all Levene's equality of variance tests). There was consierable within-group variability, as shown in Fig. 2. We examine whether variability among iniviuals with was relate to egree of prenatal anrogen exposure. Among females with, scores on Things People were positively correlate with egree of anrogen exposure, reflecte in both egree of genital virilization, r(37) =.39, pb.01, an type, r(43) =.34, pb.05. Females with severe SW- ha higher scores on Things People (M=.16, SD=.83) than females with other forms of : mil SW (M=.81, SD=.85), SV (M=.85, SD=1.17), an NC (M=.46, SD=.43). Among males with, scores on Things People were not significantly correlate with type, r(27) =.07, pn Discussion The results support the hypothesis that sex ifferences in occupational interests are ue, in part, to prenatal anrogen influences on ifferential orientation to objects versus people. Compare to unaffecte females, females with reporte more interest in occupations relate to Things versus People, an relative positioning on this interest imension was substantially relate to amount of prenatal anrogen exposure. Females with score in between males an typical females on the Things People imension; their intermeiate score might reflect a ose effect of prenatal Table 2 Descriptive statistics an group comparisons for five RIASEC composite scores. RIASEC imension Females Males Sex ifference (unaffecte) n=46 Unaffecte n=21 n=27 Unaffecte n=31 Realistic.68 (.49).39 (.38) (.51) 1.04 (.47) Investigative.93 (.55).63 (.56) (.55).80 (.63) Artistic.90 (.51).98 (.54) (.46).55 (.44) Social.76 (.59).93 (.60) (.51).41 (.51) Enterprising.63 (.56).78 (.55) (.49).41 (.39) Means with stanar eviations in parentheses; range of possible scores: 0 to 2. Group ifferences significant by t-test: pb.05; pb.01; pb.001.

4 316 A.M. Beltz et al. / Hormones an Behavior 60 (2011) Things Ieas Data People Fig. 1. Five RIASEC imensions plotte accoring to their loaings on two extracte an rotate orthogonal components, Things People an Data Ieas. anrogen or the feminizing effects of socialization or other biological factors relate to XX karyotype. These finings exten previous work by ientifying an unerlying psychological imension interest in engaging with objects versus people for prenatal anrogen effects on leisure an occupational interests (Berenbaum, 1999; Meyer-Bahlburg et al., 2006). This work is relevant to the broa question of women's unerrepresentation in STEM careers because it points to a hormonally-influence psychological characteristic interest in working with objects versus people that unerlies vocational interests. Those interests are important because they preict career choices (Hansen, 2005; Rottinghaus et al., 2007). Our results suggest that typical women, who are expose to low levels of prenatal anrogen, participate less than o men in STEM careers partly because they are intereste in working with people. This is consistent with evience that women value communal goals, which are perceive to be at os with STEM careers (Diekman et al., 2010) an that women who enter STEM careers often o so in people-oriente professions, such as meicine (Benbow et al., 2000). There are several methoological issues to consier in interpreting the results. First, is not a perfect experiment; females with iffer from unaffecte siblings in ways other than prenatal anrogen. Nevertheless, prenatal anrogen is the most likely explanation for the results because there was a high correlation between egree of prenatal anrogen exposure an occupational interest, an males with i not iffer from unaffecte males; further, anrogen effects on interests have been confirme in typical samples (Auyeung et al., 2009). Secon, our sample was not racially or ethnically iverse. However, the structure of interests is invariant across ethnic groups (Gupta et al., 2008). Thir, the measure we use was evelope specifically for this stuy. But it is base upon the RIASEC theoretical framework, generally conforme to the expecte higher-orer structure, an Things People showe the expecte sex ifference (Su et al., 2009). An important issue concerns the bipolarity of Things People. Although analyses generally prouce a bipolar factor, it is important to consier the possibility that there are two separate imensions Things an People. This parallels iscussions of the imensionality of gener-typing, with the original conceptualization of a bipolar imension of masculinity femininity refine to acknowlege the separability of masculinity an femininity (Bem, 1975). The bipolar structure of Things People is maintaine by stanar analyses that inclue correction for response set an varimax rotation in factor analyses. Our sample was not large enough to etermine whether occupational interests were better escribe by two separate factors than by a single bipolar factor. Nevertheless, some insight into the nature of Things People is provie by an examination of group means for the Realistic an Social imensions which anchor theoretically (Preiger, 1982) an empirically (Fig. 1) the poles of Things an People, respectively. As shown in Table 2, the pattern of finings on Realistic an Social composite scores for unaffecte males an females is consistent with an interpretation of Things People as a bipolar imension: males were intereste in Realistic but not Social occupations whereas females were intereste in Social but not Realistic occupations. The pattern of finings for females with, however, might be easier to interpret with two separate imensions (Things an People) rather than a bipolar one. Females with reporte similar interest in Table 3 Descriptive statistics an group comparisons for the Things People component score. n=46 Females Males Sex ifference (unaffecte) Unaffecte n=21 n=27 Unaffecte n=31 Things People.26 (.91).88 (.68) (.98).58 (.75) Means with stanar eviations in parentheses; range of possible scores: 1 to1 Group ifferences significant by one-taile t-test: pb.01; pb.001.

5 A.M. Beltz et al. / Hormones an Behavior 60 (2011) References Fig. 2. Scores of iniviual participants on the Things versus People component plotte by group. Males are represente by circles an females by triangles; open shapes inicate iniviuals with, an gray shapes inicate unaffecte iniviuals. Horizontal lines represent group means an stanar eviations. Realistic an Social occupations, resulting in a score on the Things People component that is close to 0, which shoul not be interprete as a lack of occupational interests. Moreover, compare to unaffecte females, females with were as intereste in Social occupations but more intereste in Realistic occupations (although not as intereste as unaffecte males). This suggests that the scores of females with on Things People reflect an increase interest in Things-relate occupations an not a ecrease interest in Peoplerelate occupations. Our finings inicate that career choices are influence by prenatal anrogens through a psychological orientation to objects versus people that manifests in gener-type occupational interests. We emphasize, however, the complexity of career choices: occupational interests are not etermine exclusively by sex or prenatal anrogen exposure, as seen in the overlapping scores of our groups, an in other ata showing parent socialization of occupational interests (Eccles, 1994); moreover, interests are only one contributor to career choice (Ceci an Williams, 2007; Halpern et al., 2007). In combination with other finings on genere interests, our results are relevant to efforts to increase participation of girls an women in STEM careers. It is important to recognize that career choices have roots in early-eveloping an biologically-influence interests. Girls an women might be encourage to pursue STEM careers by focusing on the ways in which an orientation to people is compatible with those careers. 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