Cover Sheet. Subject: Developmental and Lifespan Psychology Year 2

Transcription

1 1 Cover Sheet Student Name: Student Number: Lab Group: Loftus Date: 25/02/2013 Subject: Developmental and Lifespan Psychology Year 2

2 2 Table of Contents Page 1. Cover Sheet Page 2. Table of Contents Page 3. Autism - Applied Behaviour Analysis Summary Page 4. Autism - Applied Behaviour Analysis and Floortime Page 5. Autism References Page 6. Self-Esteem and Anxiety Method Page 7. Self-Esteem and Anxiety Results Page 8. Self-Esteem and Anxiety References Page 9. Bullying Olweus Anti-Bullying Program Summary Page 10. Bullying Essay Page 11. Bullying References Page 12. Appendices

3 3 Applied Behaviour Analysis Summary Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA) is the use of behavior manipulation techniques such as positive reinforcement to address problems of behavior and communication by bringing about meaningful behavioral change. ABA examines behaviour as a science and relies on objectively defined, observable behaviours. It helps children with autism to develop basic skills such as listening and complex skills such as reading.

4 4 Applied Behaviour Analysis and Floortime Applied behaviour analysis (ABA) has become one of the most effective empirically based strategies of intervention of persons with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) (Simpson, 2001). The best known ABA-based instructional strategy for ASD children is discrete trial training. A trial consists of a cue, the opportunity to respond and a reward. Other known methods include video modelling and social stories. A number of completed studies have shown that ABA techniques can produce improvements in behaviour, communication and cognitive development in children with ASD (Keenan, 2006). ABA has been successful in helping ASD children establish better eye contact and promote better and more functional communication while also reducing undesirable behaviours. ABA encourages learning and staying on task (Keenan, 2006). In a study done by Eikeseth, Smith and Eldevik (2007) over 4 years of ABA treatment, children displayed fewer aberrant behaviours and social problems at follow-up. Matson, Benavidez, Compton, Paclawskyj and Baglio, (1996) completed a review of over 250 studies which showed that ABA consistently offers positive outcomes in terms of educating children with ASD and enhancing life skills. Greenspan and Greenspan (1989) developed a different treatment approach to ABA called floortime, which was more interested in emotional connection than in behaviour. Floortime is a specific form of play therapy based on the Developmental Individual Difference Relationship Model (DIR) (Solomon, Necheles, Ferch & Bruckman, 2007). Floortime is child focused with the parent or therapist engaging the child at a level the child enjoys while entering the child's activities and following the child s lead. Using floortime as an intervention can help an ASD child develop emotionally and intellectually by enhancing selfregulation, interest in the world, intimacy, social relations and two-way communication (Solomon et al., 2007).

5 5 References Eikeseth, S., Smith, T., & Eldevik, S. (2007). Outcome for children with autism who began intensive behavioural treatment between ages 4 and 7 a comparison controlled study. Behaviour Modification, 31(3), Greenspan, S. & Greenspan, N. (1989). The essential partnership: how parents and children can meet the emotional challenges of infancy and childhood. New York: Viking. Keenan, M. (2006). Applied Behaviour Analysis and Autism: Building A Future Together. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Matson, J.L., Benavidez, D.A., Compton, L.S., Paclawskyj, T. and Baglio, C. (1996) Behavioral treatment of autistic persons: a review of research from 1980 to the present. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 17, Simpson, R.L. (2001). ABA and Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Issues and Considerations for Effective Practice. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 16(2), Solomon, R., Necheles, J., Ferch, C., & Bruckman, D. (2007). Pilot study of a parent training program for young children with autism: The PLAY project home consultation program. Autism: the international journal of research and practice, 11(3),

6 6 Self-Esteem & Anxiety Method Design This study was a Correlational Design. The independent variable was the self-esteem and anxiety levels. The dependent variable was the scores of the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (TMA; Taylor, 1953) and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1965). Participants Eight participants took part in this experiment: 2 were male and 6 were female. Participants were undergraduate students from a third level institution ranging from the ages of 18 to 21 years (M = 19.6, SD = 0.92). Participants were selected by convenient sampling. Materials/Apparatus What was needed to carry out this experiment was: the TMA Scale which is used to test anxiety as a personality trait; the RSES which is a test used to measure self-esteem, a study conducted by Robins, Hendin and Trzesniewski (2001) examined the validity of the Single- Item Self-Esteem Scale and the RSES. The study showed both measures had almost identical correlations, thus providing support for the validity of the RSES; a data collection sheet to collect results; IBM SPSS Statistics version 20 which is a statistical analysis programme that was used to calculate the Pearson Correlation Co-Efficient. Procedure Firstly, the participants were informed that the present study was interested in researching the relationship between self-esteem and anxiety. Consent for this study was not needed as students were participating as part of a continuous assessment. Participants were then given the RSE scale to complete followed by the TMA scale. They were given as much time as they needed to complete both scales. Data from this study was gathered on IBM SPSS version 20. The experiment took place in a computer room setting and took approximately 40 minutes.

7 7 Self-Esteem and Anxiety Results The hypothesis of this study was testing to determine if an inverse relationship exists between self-esteem and anxiety. Descriptive Statistics As shown in Figure 1., the mean and standard deviation calculations for self-esteem and anxiety are presented (see Appendix A). The number of participants (N) is 8 in each level Mean Standard Deviation 0 Self-Esteem Anxiety Figure 1. Summary of the mean and standard deviation among study variables. Inferential Statistics A Pearsons Correlation Coefficient was conducted to investigate the relationship between self-esteem and anxiety (see Appendix A). As shown in Table 2., there was a strong negative correlation between the two variables [ r = -.574, n = 8, p <.005 ] with high levels of selfesteem (M = 21.50, SD = 4.81) associated with low levels of anxiety (M = 20, SD = 6.93). These results suggest that there is an inverse relationship between self-esteem and anxiety. Table 2. Pearsons Correlation Coefficient Statistics. Self-Esteem Anxiety Self-Esteem Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Anxiety Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N

8 8 References IBM Corp. (2012). IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version Armonk, NY: IBM Corp. Robins, R. W., Hendin, H. M., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2001). Measuring global self-esteem: Construct validation of a single item measure and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Taylor, J. (1953). A personality scale of manifest anxiety. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 48(2),

9 9 Olweus Anti-Bullying Program The Olweus program is a comprehensive multi-level school based program designed and evaluated for use in elementary, middle, junior high and high schools (students aged from five to fifteen years old). The programs goals aim to reduce existing bullying problems among students and prevent the development of new bullying techniques among school kids while also improving peer relations. The Olweus program is not a classroom curriculum. It is a whole-school, systems change program at four different levels: school wide level, which involves components such as establishing a bullying prevention co-ordinating committee, staff training and staff meetings; classroom level which involves enforcing school wide rules against bullying, holding regular class meetings and meetings with parents; individual level which involves supervising student activities, intervening on the spot and developing individual intervention plans and finally community level which involves helping to spread anti-bullying messages and principles of best practice in the community and involving community members in the Bullying Prevention Coordinating Committee. There are many outcomes of the Olweus program. Students have reported 50% or more reductions in of bullying and bullying others in school and also improvements in social relations. Teachers have reported more positive attitudes in the classroom from children and reductions in reports of general antisocial behaviour such as vandalism, fighting, theft and truancy. There is also greater support for students who are bullied and more effective interventions for students who bully.

10 10 Olweus and KiVa Anti-Bullying Programs Intervention programs such as the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program (OBPP) and the KiVa Anti-bullying Program (KAP) are effective in reducing bullying and victimization, with an average decrease of about 20% in the prevalence of these problems (Farringtonand and Ttofi, 2010). OBPP was set up in Norway in the mid 1980s (Olweus, 1993) and the KAP was set up in Finland in KAP is a research-based antibullying program that has been developed with a strong emphasis on influencing the onlookers, who are neither bullies nor victims, to make them show that they are against bullying and to make them support the victim, rather than encourage the bully (Kärnä, 2012). The OBPP and the KAP both strive for the same goal; to reduce and prevent bullying in schools. Although both programs share the same goal, implementations of the programs are different. The OAPP restructures the child s social environment at school. The restructuring is intended to reduce both opportunities and rewards for engaging in bullying behaviour and to build a sense of community among students and adults within the school environment. (Olweus, 1993). The KAP works in a more systematic and structured way and works to influence the behaviour of classmates who can reduce the rewards gained by the bullies and consequently, their motivation to bully in the first place (Kärnä, Voeten, Little, Alane, Poskiparta, & Salmivalli, 2012) The OBPP and the KAP have both been found to be highly effective from an age range of 5 to 15. Kallestad and Olweus (2003) conducted a study and found that the OBPP to be most effective in schools with children at elementary and middle school level. The findings from a study done by Kärnä et al. (2012) and from a previous study for Grades 4 6 (Kärnä, Voeten, Little, Poskiparta, Kaljonen, Salmivalli, 2011) indicate that the KAP is effective in reducing bullying and victimization in Grades 1 6, but the results are more mixed in Grades 7 9.

11 11 References Farrington, D. P., & Ttofi, M. M. (2009). School-based programs to reduce bullying and victimization. Campbell Systemic Reviews, 6, Kärnä, A. (2012). Effectiveness of the KiVa Antibullying Program. Turun yliopiston julkaisuja. Turku: Turun yliopisto. Kärnä, A., Voeten, M., Little, T. D., Alanen, E., Poskiparta, E., & Salmivalli, C. (2012). Effectiveness of the KiVa Antibullying Program: Grades 1 3 and 7 9. Journal of Educational Psychology. Kärnä, A., Voeten, M., Little, T. D., Poskiparta, E., Kaljonen, A., & Salmivalli, C. (2011). A large-scale evaluation of the KiVa antibullying program: Grades 4 6. Child Development, 82, Kallestad, J. H., & Olweus, D. (2003). Predicting teachers and school s implementation of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program: A multilevel study. Prevention & Treatment, 6(21). Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. NY: Blackwell.

12 12 Appendices Appendix A Descriptive Statistics Mean Std. Deviation N SelfEsteem Anxiety Correlations SelfEsteem Anxiety Pearson Correlation SelfEsteem Sig. (2-tailed).136 N 8 8 Pearson Correlation Anxiety Sig. (2-tailed).136 N 8 8