BIPOLAR DISORDER IN CHILDREN: THE DIAGNOSTICAL CHALLENGE

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1 2 GENERAL PAPERS BIPOLAR DISORDER IN CHILDREN: THE DIAGNOSTICAL CHALLENGE Dania Andreea Radu 1, Roxana Chirita 1, Ilinca Untu 1, Irina Sacuiu 1, Valeriu V. Lupu 2, Anamaria Ciubara 1, Lucian Stefan Burlea 3 1 Gr. T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Socola Clinical Psychiatry Hospital, Iasi 2 Gr. T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Sf. Maria Clinical Pediatrics Hospital, Iasi 3 Gr. T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Iasi ABSTRACT The bipolar disorder becomes more and more frequent in the pediatric fi eld, raising numerous questions regarding the diagnosis. In most cases, the standard criteria of the disease are not fully met in the case of a child, requiring their particularization and a more accurate classifi cation. Also, a central issue is the differentiation and/ or detection of comorbidity with ADHD and conduct disorders in children. Keywords: bipolar disorder, ADHD, conduct disorder, mania/hypomania in children INTRODUCTION Although bipolar disorder has been regarded as a rare pathology in children and adolescents in recent years there has been a significant increase in its debut on early age. According to recent studies, it occurs in 1.8% of children and adolescents (1). Bipolar disorder consists of either manic followed by depressive episodes or just manic episodes of different intensities. Classically, in adults, there are two types of bipolar disorders, the first, type I, being characterized by at least one episode of mania and one or more of depression or hypomania, and the second form, type II, with alternation of hypomanic episodes with depressive ones (2). The successful applicability of correct diagnostic of an affective disorder for children and particularly for preschool, unfortunately remains unclear. There can be distinguished many differences in the manifestation of bipolar disorder in children than that of adults (Table 1). TABLE 1. Bipolar disorder child vs. adult Bipolar disorder in child Bipolar disorder in adult Debut Puberty/early adolescence The end of adolescence, 3rd decade of life Nature of simptoms Longer symptomatic stages Asymptomatic for long periods between relapses Mixed episodes Very frequent Relatively less common Symptoms of Rare More frequent psychosis Family history Very common Less common that in bipolar disorder in child ADHD as 60-90% Much less common comorbidity The stability of the type of bipolar disorder Unstable, switching frequently from non-specific form to type I or II More stable Corresponding author: Anamaria Ciubara, Gr. T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16 Universitatii St., Iasi 120 REVISTA ROMÂNÅ DE PEDIATRIE VOLUMUL LXIII, NR. 2, AN 2014

2 REVISTA ROMÂNÅ DE PEDIATRIE VOLUMUL LXIII, NR. 2, AN The diagnosis of bipolar disorder in children and adolescents Most children and adolescents do not meet DSM criteria for bipolar I or II disorder, for many reasons, including rapid cycling symptoms, non-specificity of certain signs and also their duration. Currently COBY study (the course and outcome of bipolar youth) is the only one who adapts classification of bipolar disorders in children, as follows: bipolar disorder type I, bipolar disorder type II and bipolar disorder NOS (not otherwise specified) (3,5,12). NOS bipolar disorder is characterized by rates of suicide, functional deficit and comorbidity, which are similar to the other two types, but fail to met all the criteria (Table 2). According COBY, bipolar spectrum disorders in children are episodic psychiatric disorders most commonly characterized by subsymptomatic episodes, especially depressive or mixed elements and rapid mood cycling (3,5). TABLE 2. COBY criteria for bipolar disorder NOS (3) Children and adolescents who have clinical symptoms relevant to bipolar spectrum and do not meet DSM criteria for bipolar disorder type I or II, but have periods when an elevated, expansive or irritable mood can be distinguished + more 1. Two manic symptoms in DSM 2. A marked change in general functioning 3. Duration of symptoms for at least 4 hours a day 4. A minimum of 4 consecutive days in which criteria 1, 2, 3 are meet Signs and symptoms of bipolar disorder in children and adolescents Specific signs of mania/hypomania in children are: elevated or expansive mood, irritability. Patients are easily entertained, have logorrhoea, flight of ideas, decreased need for sleep, hypersexuality, increased self esteem, sometimes delusions of gran diosity and hallucinations. Also they are involved in dangerous activities causing them great pleasure, ignore rules and have a poor judgment. Children with elation mood can laugh without reason and can manifest contagious happiness in inappropriate circumstances. Hypersexuality occurs in the absence of any abuse (abused children are often anxious and compulsive) and is characterized by inappropriate flirting, vulgar language and trivial behaviour. The decreased need for sleep manifests by the fact that the pediatric patient always seeks new activities, dont feel the fatigue (unlike the children with ADHD who can not sleep due to anxiety, stimuli or inadequate sleep hygiene). However, children with bipolar disorder are attracted by complicated toys and tend to write, paint or draw things more advanced than their age. Regarding hallucinations, it is necessary to distinguish them from benign distortion of perception, which occurs frequently in children (1,4,11,12). Bipolar depression in children is characterized by sadness, episodes of unjustified crying, hypersomnia or insomnia, agitation, irritability, withdrawal from normally enjoyable activities, apathy, leading to suicidal ideation (1,4). Some studies reported that 91% of children and 57% of adolescents with bipolar disorder have also ADHD. Another common comorbidity, but often neglected in children, is the conduct disorders, occurring in 74% of children with this condition (4). Tools for assessing the clinical symptoms of bipolar disorder in children There are several scales used in clinical practice for the evaluation of symptoms of mania or depression in bipolar disorder in children. FIND scala targets four coordinates: frequency (symptoms present more days per week), intensity (severity of symptoms), number (3-4 times per day), duration (symptoms lasting more than 4 hours per day). Another specific quantification scale of mania is YMRS (Young Mania Rating Scale) which is used in children aged 5 to 17 years, with a variant for parents, allowing them to assess the severity of symptoms (P-MRS-parent mania rating scale). In addition, another useful tool for assesing is MDQ (Mood disorder questionnaire) that has 15 dichotomous items for symptom regarding mood, being used to children over 12 years, even if it was originally created for adults. Finally, another assessment tool widely used is the Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI), which is a short diagnostic interview based on DSM IV-TR and ICD- 10, takes about15 minutes and has a version of MINI-Kid useful for children (9 10). The differential diagnosis of bipolar disorder in children Many children/adolescents may experience less specific symptoms (distractibility, hyperactivity, abnormal emotional reactivity), which may be present in other psychiatric disorders such as ADHD, conduct disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, pervasive developmental disorders, which may mislead the examiner in the diagnosis of bipolar disorder or to overdiagnose this nosological category (1,4,11).

3 122 REVISTA ROMÂNÅ DE PEDIATRIE VOLUMUL LXIII, NR. 2, AN 2014 One of the main challenges of differential diagnosis is with ADHD, because sometimes it s very difficult to differentiate the manic/hypomanic symptoms (logorheea in bipolar disorder/the excessive talking in ADHD, psychomotor agitation in bipolar disorder/hyperkinesis of ADHD, distractibility which is present in both medical conditions) (Table 3). Ideally, the duration and frequency of symptoms should be pursued in order to establish a clear diagnosis of bipolar disorder in children and for a correct differentiate diagnosis from ADHD which it is not an episodic disorder (1,6,7,12). Neurological Endocrinologic migraines multiple sclerosis cerebral tumors epilepsy, espeically temporal head trauma cerebrovasculare disease hypothyriodism hyperthyroidism fenocromocitoma TABLE 3. Bipolar disorder in children vs. ADHD (1) Symptoms Bipolar disorder ADHD Elevated mood Association with Less frequent elements of grandiosity Hypersexuality Present Absent Psychotics simptoms Present Absent Iritability Dominant Less dominant Self harm and Frequent Rare suicidal behavior Family history History of bipolar ADHD disorder or depression Flight of ideas and incoherence Present Absent However, most frequently symptoms as irritability, hostility, impulsivity, hypersexuality, are interpreted as an uninhibited social behavior, generally being assigned to conduct disorders and not to bipolar disorders. The main difference between these two diseases is that the conduct disorder occurs slowly and signs and symptoms escalate progressively, from mild to severe, while in bipolar disorder the clinical onset occurs suddenly (1.4, 7) Hence, studies show that the signs that appear exclusively in mania/hypomania (grandiosity, elevated mood, flight of ideas, hyperactivity routed to multiple purposes, hypersexuality and lower physiological need for sleep) are vital for the diagnosis of bipolar disorder (13). In clinical practice, there may be a number of general medical conditions, often chronical, of endocrine, neurological or infectious nature that can mimic different mood swings symptoms that can question the diagnosis of bipolar disorder (Fig. 1). Infectious AIDS mononucleosis cerebral abscess sepsis FIGURE 1. Other general medical conditions that can mimic mood swings symptoms (6) CONCLUSION Symptoms of bipolar disorder in children and adolescents is atypical in comparisson to that of the adult. Children who have been diagnosed with this disease have rapid mood and behavior cycling, while is often associated with other psychiatric diseases, especially with ADHD and conduct disorders, which represent the main targets of differential diagnosis. Although DSM provides limited criteria to correctly diagnose this disorder both in children and teenagers, bipolar disorder has a growing frequency in this category of age. Therefore, to improve and adapt the criteria for the correct diagnosis of bipolar disorder in children and teenagers, but especially preschool children represents a necessity. Clearly, better definition of subtypes and extend the idea of bipolar disorders increase the accuracy of proper diagnosis of this disease in children. REFERENCES 1. Renk K., White R., Lauer B.A., McSwiggan M., Puff J., Lowell A. Bipolar Disorder in Children., Psychiatry J. 2014; 2014: Epub 2014 Feb 24. Review. 2. DSM-5, American Psychiatric Association, Birmaher B., Axelson D., Goldstein B., Strober M., Gill MK, Hunt J., Houck P., Ha W., Iyengar S., Kim E., Yen S., Hower H., Esposito-Smythers C., Goldstein T., Ryan N., Keller M. Four-year longitudinal course of children and adolescents with bipolar spectrum disorders: the Course and Outcome of Bipolar Youth (COBY) study., Am J Psychiatry Jul; 166(7): doi: /appi. ajp Epub 2009 May 15.

4 REVISTA ROMÂNÅ DE PEDIATRIE VOLUMUL LXIII, NR. 2, AN Singh T. Pediatric bipolar disorder: diagnostic challenges in identifying symptoms and course of illness, Psychiatry (Edgmont) Jun; 5(6): Birmaher B. Longitudinal course of pediatric bipolar disorder, American Journal of Psychiatry. 2007; 164(4): Sadock B.J., Sadock V. Kaplan & Sadock-Manual de buzunar de psihiatrie clinică, A, Ediţia a III-a, Ed. Medicală, Kramlinger K.G., Post R.M. Ultra-rapid and ultradian cycling in bipolar affective illness. Br J Psychiatry Leibenluft E., Charney D.S., Towbin K.E., et al. Defi ning clinical phenotypes of juvenile mania. Am J Psychiatry Biederman J., Wozniak J., Kiely K., et al. CBCL clinical scales to discriminate prepubertal children with structured interview-derived diagnosis of mania from those with ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry Sheehan D.V., Lecrubier Y., Sheehan K.H., et al. The Mini- International Neuropsychiatric Interview(MINI): the development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. J Clin Psychiatry (Suppl20) Saxena K., Nakonezny P.A., Simmons A., Mayes T., Walley A., Emslie G. Outpatient diagnosis and clinical presentation of bipolar youth. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry Aug; 18(3): Youngstrom E.A., Birmaher B., Findling R.L. Pediatric bipolar disorder: Validity, phenomenology, and recommendations for diagnosis, Bipolar Disorders. 2008; 10: DelBello M.P., Hanseman D., Adler C.M., Fleck D.E., Strakowski S.M. Twelve-month outcome of adolescents with bipolar disorder following first hospitalization for a manic or mixed episode, American Journal of Psychiatry. 2007; 164(4):

5 REFERATE GENERALE 2 TULBURAREA AFECTIVĂ BIPOLARĂ LA COPIL, CA PROVOCARE DIAGNOSTICĂ Dania Andreea Radu 1, Roxana Chiriţă 1, Ilinca Untu 1, Irina Săcuiu 1, Valeriu Lupu 2, Anamaria Ciubară 1, Lucian Ştefan Burlea 3 1 Universitatea de Medicină şi Farmacie Gr. T. Popa, Spitalul Clinic de Psihiatrie Socola, Iaşi 2 Universitatea de Medicină şi Farmacie Gr. T. Popa, Spitalul Clinic de Copii Sf. Maria, Iaşi 3 Universitatea de Medicină şi Farmacie Gr. T. Popa, Iaşi REZUMAT Tulburarea afectivă bipolară devine o patologie tot mai frecventă în sfera pediatrică, ridicând numeroase probleme de diagnostic de certitudine cât şi diferenţial. De cele mai multe ori, criteriile standard ale bolii nu sunt întru totul îndeplinite la copil, fi ind necesară o particularizare a acestora şi o mai exactă clasifi care a tipurilor nosologice. Totodată, o problemă centrală este cea a diferenţierii şi/sau detectării comorbidităţii cu ADHD şi cu tulburările de conduită ale copilului. Cuvinte cheie: tulburare afectivă bipolară, ADHD, tulburare de conduită, manie/hipomanie la copil INTRODUCERE Cu toate că tulburarea afectivă bipolară a fost considerată ca fiind o patologie rară la copil şi adolescent, experienţa clinicienilor înregistrează o creştere semnificativă a debutului acesteia la vârstă fragedă. Conform studiilor recente, apare la 1,8% dintre copii şi adolescenţi (1). Tulburarea afectivă bipolară constă fie în succesiunea episoadelor depresive cu episoade maniacale, fie doar în succesiunea mai multor episoade maniacale de intensităţi diferite. În mod clasic, la adult, se disting două tipuri de tulburare afectivă bipolară, primul caracterizându-se prin cel puţin un epi sod de manie şi unul sau mai multe de depresie sau de hipomanie, iar al doilea constând în alternarea episoadelor hi pomaniacale cu episoade depresive (2). Aplicabilitatea criteriilor de diagnostic ale tulburării afective pentru copii, şi în mod particular pentru preşcolari, rămâne neclară. Se disting numeroase diferenţe ale modului de manifestare a tulburării afective bipolare la copil faţă de cea a adultului (Tabelul 1). TABELUL 1. Tulburarea afectivă bipolară: copil vs. adult (1) Tulburare bipolară Tulburare bipolară copil adult Debut Natura simptomelor Pubertate/adolescenţă timpurie Stadii simptomatice mai lungi Sfârșitul adolescenţei, decada 3 de viaţă Perioade lungi asimptomatice între decompensări Episoade mixte Foarte frecvente Relativ mai puţin comune Simptomatologie Rare Mai frecvente de aspect psihotic Istoric familial Foarte comun Mai puţin comun decât în tulburarea bipolară pediatrică Comorbiditate cu ADHD 60-90% Mult mai puţin comună Stabilitatea tipului tulburării bipolare Instabilă, trecerea frecventă de la forma nespecifică la tipul I sau II Mai stabilă Adresa de corespondenţă: Şef Lucr. Dr. Anamaria Ciubară, Spitalul Clinic de Psihiatrie Socola, Şoseaua Bucium nr. 36, Iaşi REVISTA ROMÂNÅ DE PEDIATRIE VOLUMUL LXIII, NR. 2, AN

6 178 REVISTA ROMÂNÅ DE PEDIATRIE VOLUMUL LXIII, NR. 2, AN 2014 Diagnosticarea tulburării afective bipolare la copii şi adolescenţi Majoritatea copiilor şi adolescenţilor nu întrunesc criteriile DSM pentru tulburarea afectivă bipolară I sau II, din numeroase motive, printre care se numără ciclarea rapidă a simptomatologiei, nespecificitatea anumitor semne, precum şi durata aces tora. În prezent, studiul COBY (The course and outcome of bipolar youth) este singurul care adaptează clasificarea tulburării afective bipolare la copil astfel: tulburare afectivă bipolară de tip I, tulburare afectivă bipolară de tip II şi tulburarea afectivă bipolară NOS (not otherwise specified) (3,5,12). Tulburarea afectivă bipolară NOS se caracterizează prin rate de suicid, deficit fucţional şi comorbiditate echivalente celorlalte două tipuri, neîndeplinind însă toate criteriile acestora (Tabelul 2). Conform COBY, tulburările din spectrul bipolar la copil sunt tulburări psihice episodice, cel mai frecvent caracterizate prin episoade subsimpto matice, mai ales cu elemente depresive sau mixte şi cu ciclare rapidă a dispoziţiei (3,5). TABELUL 2. Criteriile COBY pentru tulburarea afectivă bipolară NOS (3) Copii și adolescenţi care au simptomatologii clinice relevante pentru spectrul bipolar și nu îndeplinesc criteriile DSM pentru tulburarea bipolară tip I sau II, dar au perioade în care se distinge o simptomatologie caracterizată prin dispoziţie elevată, expansivă sau iritabilă + următoarele: 1. 2 simptome maniacale conform DSM 2. O schimbare marcată a funcţionalităţii 3. Durata simptomatologiei de minim 4 ore pe zi 4. Un minim de 4 zile consecutive în care se reunesc criteriile 1, 2, 3 Semne şi simptome ale tulburării afective bipolare la copil şi adolescent Semnele specifice maniei/hipomaniei la copil sunt: dispoziţia elevată, expansivă sau iritabilitatea. Pacienţii sunt uşor distractibili, prezintă logoree, fugă de idei, scăderea nevoii fiziologice de somn, hipersexualitate, stimă de sine crescută, uneori chiar delir de grandoare, precum şi halucinaţii. De asemenea, se implică în activităţi periculoase care le provoacă o plăcere deosebită, ignoră regulile şi au un discernământ scăzut. Copiii cu dispoziţie de elaţie pot râde fără motiv sau pot manifesta o fericire molipsitoare în circumstanţe inadecvate. Hiper sexua litatea apare în absenţa oricărui abuz (copiii abuzaţi sunt de cele mai multe ori anxioşi şi compulsivi) şi se caracterizează prin flirt inadecvat vârstei, limbaj vulgar şi comportament trivial. Scăderea nevoii fiziologice de somn se manifestă prin faptul că pacientul pediatric caută mereu alte activităţi, ne simţind oboseala (spre deosebire de copiii cu ADHD, care nu pot adormi din cauza anxietăţii, a stimulilor din încăpere sau a unei igiene inadecvate a somnului). Totodată, copiii cu tul burare afectivă bipolară sunt atraşi de jucăriile complicate şi au tendinţa de a scrie, picta sau desena lucruri cu mult mai avansate decât vârsta lor. În ceea ce priveşte halucinaţiile, este necesară diferenţierea lor de distor siunea benignă a percepţiei, care apare frecvent la copil (1,4,11,12). Depresia bipolară la copil se caracterizează prin tristeţe, accese de plâns nemotivat, hipersomnie sau insomnii, agitaţie, iritabilitate, retragerea din activităţi plăcute în mod normal, apatie, ajungându-se până la idei suicidare (1,4). Conform unor studii, s-a raportat că 91% dintre copiii şi 57% dintre adolescenţii cu tulburare afectivă bipolară au ca şi comorbiditate ADHD. O altă comorbiditate comună, însă adeseori neglijată a tulburării afective bipolare la copil, o constituie tulburările de conduită, care apar la 74% dintre copiii cu această patologie (4). Instrumente clinice de evaluare a simptomelor tulburării afective bipolare la copil Există câteva scale utilizate în practica clinică pentru evaluarea simptomelor de manie sau de depresie din tulburarea afectivă bipolară a copilului. Scala FIND vizează 4 coordonate: frecvenţă (simptome prezente mai multe zile pe săptămână), intensitate (severitatea simptomelor), număr (3-4 ori pe zi), durată (simptomele durează mai mult de 4 ore pe zi). O altă scală specifică cuantificării maniei la copil este YMRS (young mania rating scale), utilizată la copii cu vârste între 5 şi 17 ani, având şi o variantă adresată părinţilor, ce permite acestora să evalueze severitatea simptomelor (P-MRS-parent mania rating scale). În plus, se utilizează şi MDQ (mood disorder questionnaire) care are 15 itemi dihotomici pentru simptome dispoziţionale, folosindu-se la copii peste 12 ani, chiar dacă iniţial a fost creată pentru adulţi. Un alt instrument de evaluare este Mini- International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) ce constituie un scurt interviu diagnostic, bazat pe criteriile DSM IV-TR şi ICD- 10, care durează 15 minute şi prezintă o versiune MINI-Kid, utilă pentru copii (9,10). Diagnosticul diferenţial al tulburării afective bipolare la copil Mulţi copii/adolescenţi pot manifesta simptome mai puţin specifice (distractibilitate, hiperactivitate,

7 REVISTA ROMÂNÅ DE PEDIATRIE VOLUMUL LXIII, NR. 2, AN TABELUL 3. Tulburarea afectivă bipolară vs. ADHD la copil (1) Simptom Tulburare afectivă ADHD bipolară Dispoziţie elevată Asocierea cu elemente de grandoare Mai puţin frecventă Hipersexualitate Prezentă Absentă Simptome psihotice Prezente Absente Dispoziţie iritabilă Foarte proeminentă Mai puţin proeminente Autoagresiune și Frecvent Rar comportament suicidar Istoric familial Istoric de tulburare ADHD afectivă bipolară sau depresie Fugă de idei și incoerenţă prezentă absentă tulburări ale reactivităţii emoţionale), care pot fi prezente şi în alte boli psihiatrice, cum ar fi ADHD, tulburările de conduită, tulburarea de stres post traumatic, tulburările pervazive ale dezvoltării, care pot duce în eroare examinatorul, ce poate omite diagnosticul de tulburare afectivă bipolară sau, dim potrivă, poate supradiagnostica această cate gorie nosologică (1,4,11). Una dintre principalele provocări ale diagnosticului diferenţial este cea pusă de ADHD, fiind foarte dificil de diferenţiat simptomatologia de aspect maniacal/hipomaniacal de cea specifică aces teia (logoreea din tulburarea afectivă bipolară/ vorbitul excesiv din ADHD, agitaţia psihomotorie din tulburarea afectivă bipolară/hiperkinezia din ADHD, distractibilitatea prezentă în ambele condiţii medicale) (Tabelul 3). În mod ideal, ar trebui urmărită periodicitatea simptomatologiei, pentru a se putea stabili un diagnostic clar si corect de tul burare afectivă biolară la copil şi pentru a o diferenţia de ADHD, care nu este o tulburare episodică (1,6, 7,12). Totodată, de cele mai multe ori, simptome ca iritabilitatea, ostilitatea, impulsivitatea, hipersexualitatea, sunt interpretate ca fiind comportamente inadecvate sau acţiuni sociale dezinhibate, fiind atribuite dominant tulburărilor de conduită şi nu tulburării afective bipolare. Principala diferenţă din tre aceste două patologii o constituie faptul că în tulburările de conduită are loc o evoluţie lentă şi progresivă a simptomelor şi semnelor, de la uşoare la severe, în vreme ce în tulburarea afectivă bipolară are loc un debut clinic brusc (1,4,7). Astfel, cercetările arată că semnele care apar exclusiv în manie/hipomanie (grandoare, dispoziţie elevată, fugă de idei, hiperactivitate dirijată spre scopuri multiple, hipersexualitate şi scăderea nevoii fiziologice de somn) sunt vitale pentru a stabili diagnosticul de tulburare afectivă bipolară la copil (13). În practica clinică, pot exista o serie de condiţii medicale generale, cu caracter de cele mai multe ori cronic, endocrinologice, neurologice sau de natură infecţioasă, care pot mima simptome de aspect afectiv-dispoziţional ce ridică problema diagnosticului de tulburare afectivă bipolară (Fig.1). FIGURA 1. Alte condiţii medicale generale care pot mima simptomele dispoziţionale şi afective (6) CONCLUZII Simptomatologia tulburării afective bipolare la copil şi adolescent este atipică în comparaţie cu cea a adultului. Copiii care au fost diagnosticaţi cu această boală prezintă ciclări rapide ale dispoziţiei şi ale comportamentului şi se asociază frecvent cu alte patologii psihiatrice, în special cu ADHD şi cu tulburările de conduită, acestea reprezentând totodată şi principalele ţinte ale diagnosticului diferenţial. Cu toate că DSM oferă criterii limitate pentru diagnosticarea la copil şi adolescent, tulburarea afectivă bipolară are o frecvenţă în continuă creştere în această categorie populaţională. De aceea, îmbunătăţirea şi adaptarea criteriilor de diagnostic a tulburării afective bipolare a co pilului şi adolescentului, dar mai ales a copilului preşcolar, reprezintă o necesitate, fiind un subiect deschis cercetării. În mod clar, buna definire a subtipurilor şi extinderea ideii de spectru a tulburărilor afective bipolare creşte acurateţea diagnosticării acestei boli la copil.

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