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6 VPLIV KRMLJENJA S SLADKORNIMI SIRUPI NA DOLGOŽIVOST ČEBEL (Apis mellifera carnica) Maja Ivana SMODIŠ ŠKERL 1, Mitja NAKRST 2, Aleš GREGORC 3 IZVLEČEK Za krmljenje čebeljih družin se v času pomanjkanja paše in za zazimitev v čebelarstvu uporablja konzumni sladkor v obliki sladkorne raztopine in tudi drugi sladkorni sirupi. V našem poskusu, v laboratorijskih pogojih smo pri krmljenju z različnimi sestavami sladkornih sirupov spremljali preživitveno sposobnost čebel, število spor Nosema spp. in velikost krmilnih žlez. Rezultati so pokazali, da je 10 dni starosti doživelo nad 90 odstotkov delavk iz vseh štirih skupin. Najdlje so živele delavke v skupini 'sladkorna raztopina, ki so dobile glukozno-fruktozni sirup, in sirup 'TruSweet', kjer je okrog 10 odstotkov delavk preživelo 39 dni. Hitreje so odmirale delavke v kletkah ki so v hrani dobile saharozno-fruktozni-glukozni sirup»apiinvert«ali fruktozno-glukozni-saharozni sirup»ambrosia«. Najmanjše število spor Nosema spp., pod 1 milijon na čebelo, so imele mrtvice iz skupin 'TruSweet', 'Apiinvert' in 'Ambrosia', medtem ko so imele mrtvice v skupini 'sladkorna raztopina' od 1,4 x 10 6 do 48 x 10 6 spor. Vrsta dodanega sladkornega sirupa ni imela vpliva na velikosti krmilnih žlez. Dodajanje različnih vrst sladkorne raztopine ima pomemben vpliv na dolgoživost delavk in pojavljanje okužbe s sporami Nosema spp. v prebavilih. Ključne besede: sladkorni sirupi, preživetje, dolgoživost, medonosna čebela EFFECT OF FEEDING WITH SUGAR SYRUPS ON HONEYBEE (Apis mellifera carnica) LONGEVITY ABSTRACT In beekeeping practice, during the lack of nectar and for winter feeding the consume sugar (sucrose) and several other sugar syrups are used. In our experiment, we conducted feeding with different syrups in laboratory conditions assessing performance of caged workers in terms of survival, load of Nosema spp. spores and size of hypopharingeal (food processing) glands. We found that 90 % of workers survived 10 days in all four tested diet groups. The longest survival was found in workers fed by 'sugar syrup' and 'TruSweet', where approx. 10 % of bees remain alive in cages 39 days. Mortality rate was higher in cages where workers received saccharose-fructose-glucose Apiinvert or fructose-glucose-saccharose Ambrosia syrup. The lower Nosema spp. spore load, under 1 million per bee, was detected in workers received 'TruSweet', 'Apiinvert' and 'Ambrosia' and the highest spore load, varied from 1.4 x 10 6 to 48 x 10 6 per bee, was found in workers received only 'sugar syrup'. We found no differences in the acini size of 1 Dr., dr.vet.med., Kmetijski inštitut Slovenije, Hacquetova ulica 17, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija, e- pošta: maja.smodis.skerl@kis.si 2 Dipl.inž.zoot., prav tam 3 Red.prof.dr., dr.vet.med., prav tam 1

7 hypopharingeal glands in workers of all feeding groups. Different sugars syrups have an important influence on workers longevity and Nosema spp. spore load in the intestine. Key words: sugar syrups, survival, longevity, honeybee 1. UVOD Zgodaj spomladi se čebelja družina intenzivno obnavlja in vzreja spomladanske čebele, ki nasledijo populacijo zimskih čebel. Matica obilno zalega, dolgožive delavke porabljajo svoje zadnje zaloge hranilnih snovi v telesu (Fluri in sod., 1982, Crailsheim, 1990) in oskrbujejo mlado zalego. Mlade delavke se spomladi izležejo kot kratkoživeče in kmalu pričnejo izletati iz panja ter iskati prvo pašo. V tem času zimske zaloge hrane hitro poidejo. Zaradi spremenljivega vremena in nihanja temperatur se pogosto pojavlja nevarnost, da je čebelam onemogočena pašna aktivnost in je zaradi tega ustavljen vnos hrane v panj. Posledično se lahko začasno zmanjša oskrba zalege, ki ravno v tem času potrebuje nemoten dotok življenjsko pomembne energijske in proteinske hrane. Obilen donos proteinske hrane v panj pospešuje vzrejo mladih čebel (Mattila in Otis, 2006). Številčnost mladih delavk še ne določa njihove kakovosti, zato je potrebno ocenjevati več lastnosti, med katerimi se najpogosteje omenja dolgoživost. Oskrba in krmljenje zalege pri mladih čebelah zahteva obilo hranilnih snovi, pretežno proteinskega izvora, da zadostijo svojim fiziološkim potrebam. Dolgoživost čebel krmilk se krajša z večjim obsegom zalege, ki jo intenzivno krmijo (Maurizio, 1959, Neukirch, 1982, Amdam in Omholt, 2003). Krmilke ostajajo v gnezdu tudi pri starosti nad 27 dni, ko so krmilne ali hipofaringealne žleze aktivne in izločajo sekret (Smodiš Škerl, 2011). Nasprotno ob pomanjkanju hrane v panju delavke pričnejo s pašno aktivnostjo (Free, 1961). Znano je, da dopolnilno krmljenje s sladkornim sirupom povečuje učinek na razvoj družine v obdobju pomanjkanja nektarja ali pri oskrbi družin po točenju medu. Še posebej je krmljenje s sladkornim sirupom pomembno za pripravo družin na prezimovanje (Free in Spencerbooth, 1961). Običajno se uporablja 33-odstotna (za razvojno krmljenje) oziroma 50-odstotna raztopina pesnega sladkorja (za zazimitev). Pri odločanju o dodatnem krmljenju lahko čebelar poleg rafiniranega pesnega sladkorja izbira med več vrstami sladkornih sirupov. V naši raziskavi smo uporabili tri komercialne sirupe, ki so prisotni na slovenskem tržišču, in sicer glukozno-fruktozni sirup 'TruSweet' (Cargill), saharozno-fruktozni-glukozni sirup 'Apiinvert' (Südzucker, Nemčija), in fruktozno-glukozni-saharozni sirup 'Ambrosia' (Nordzucker, Nemčija). Sirupi so po navodilih proizvajalcev pripravljeni za takojšnje krmljenje družin. Njihova sestava temelji na razmerjih fruktoze, glukoze in/ali saharoze, ki čebele manj obremenjuje, saj morajo običajni sladkor (saharoza) encimsko razgraditi in pri tem porabijo nekaj več energije. Zimske čebele so po krmljenju z invertnimi sirupi manj obremenjene (Zaboenko, 2000, citirano po Ceksteryte in Racys, 2006). Poleg sestavin matičnega mlečka krmilne žleze izločajo tudi encime, ki sodelujejo pri prebavi, to so alfaglukozidaza (Kratky, 1931), glukoza oksidaza (Ohashi in sod., 1999) in druge. S starostjo čebele se v žlezah povečuje proizvodnja alfa-glukozidaze (Halberstadt, 1980), ki pretvarja saharozo v glukozo in fruktozo. Morfološka oblika žlez se s staranjem čebele spreminja, pri čemer se velikost acinusov zmanjšuje in žleze podležejo degeneraciji (Cruz-Landim in Hadek, 1969). Prebavni sistem čebele je ob prisotnosti velikih količin cvetnega prahu bolj obremenjen, zato je bolj izpostavljen delovanju patogenih mikrorganizmv (npr. mikrosporidij Nosema 2

8 spp.), ki vstopajo v prebavila tudi preko hrane. Zaščito prebavnega trakta omogoča peritrofična membrana, ki jo proizvaja epitelij ventrikla. Hrana se razgrajuje predvsem v srednjem črevesu ali ventriklu, kjer poteka absorbcija hranilnih snovi. V poskusu, kjer so čebele dobivale sladkorni sirup, je bilo v ventriklu peritrofična membrana v manjšem obsegu v primerjavi s čebelami, ki so jih krmili s probiotiki in nadomestki cvetnega prahu (Szymaś in Przybył, 2007). V epitelnih celicah ventrikla se razmnožuje povzročitelj nosemavosti, Nosema ceranae. Okužene delavke so bolj ješče in ob neomejenem dostopu do hrane se preživitvena sposobnost ne razlikuje od neokuženih (Mayack in Naug, 2009). V naši raziskavi smo želeli ugotoviti, ali se bodo štirje različni sirupi namenjeni za krmljenje čebel, razlikovali v vplivu na preživetje kratkoživih spomladanskih delavk in na velikost acinusov krmilnih žlez, in kako bo dodajanje sirupov v hrani vplivalo na pojavljanje spor Nosema spp. v prebavilih. Želeli smo potrditi hipotezo, da bodo kratko živeče delavke v poskusnih pogojih ob dodajanju sladkornih sirupov le-te dobro izkoriščale, in bodo prebavni sistem manj obremenjevali in čebelam zagotavljali daljšo življenjsko dobo kot dodajanje raztopine pesnega sladkorja (saharoze). 2. MATERIAL IN METODE DELA Poskuse smo izvajali v aprilu in maju 2012 v čebelarskem laboratoriju Kmetijskega inštituta Slovenije. Čebele delavke (Apis mellifera carnica) smo za poskus pridobili iz čebeljih družin v čebelnjaku Kmetijskega inštituta Slovenije (Senično, Gorenjska). 2.1 Priprava kletk in čebel Za posamezni poskus smo pripravili plastične ovalne kletke s premerom 12 cm in višino 8 cm. V steno smo zvrtali več manjših odprtin za zračenje in še tri večje odprtine za posodice s hrano ter za vzorčenje čebel. V sredino kletke smo namestili satno osnovo velikosti cca. 4 x 5 cm in 20 ml, plastične posodice s sirupom. Iz čebeljih družin smo izbrali sate s polegajočo se delavsko zalego in jih prenesli v inkubator. Naslednji dan so se izlegle mlade delavke v starosti od 0 do 24 ur. Z delavkami smo naselili 20 kletk, v vsako okoli 100 delavk. Kletke s čebelami smo prenesli v inkubator na stalno temperaturo in vlago (T 28 C, 60 % relativne vlage). Kletke smo razdelili na 4 skupine. Čebele so v posameznih skupinah prejemale glukozno-fruktozni sirup»trusweet«(1. skupina), saharozno-fruktozni- glukozni sirup»apiinvert«(2. skupina), fruktozno-glukozni-saharozni sirup»ambrosia«(3. skupina), in 4. skupina čebel, ki je v času poskusa prejemala sirup v obliki sladkorne raztopine (razmerje sladkorja in vode 1/1, w/v). Čebele so imele tekočo hrano stalno na voljo, ad libitum. 2.2 Štetje mrtvic Dnevno smo beležili število mrtvic, odmrlih delavk, v vsaki skupini po štiri kletke ponovitve. Izločene mrtvice smo shranjevali na 20 0 C, za nadaljnje analize. Delavkam v kletkah smo dnevno dodajali posamezne sirupe. 3

9 2.3 Določanje velikosti acinusov krmilnih žlez V ločenem poskusu smo v ločenih kletkah prav tako s štirimi vrstami sirupa krmili delavke iste starosti. Na izbrane dneve smo odvzeli po tri delavke iz skupine, jih prenesli na led in jim secirali krmilne žleze, ki ležijo v čelnem delu glave. Žleze smo fiksirali v 10-odstotnem nevtralno puferiranem formalinu. Nato smo tkivo dehidrirali v 70-, 90- in 100-odstotni raztopini alkohola, in končno v ksilenu. V inkubatorju pri temperaturi 65 C smo postopek nadaljevali z vklapljanjem tkiva v parafinski vosek. Na koncu smo tkiva namestili v ustrezen položaj in ga zalili v parafinu. Parafinske bloke z zalitim materialom smo narezali z mikrotomom (Leica) na 6 µm tanke rezine. Predmetna stekla s histološkimi rezinami smo shranili za nadaljnje preiskave na sobni temperaturi. Histološke rezine na predmetnicah smo v nadaljnjem postopku obarvali s hematoksilinom in eozinom ter preiskali s pomočjo svetlobnega mikroskopa (Carl Zeiss) in s foto kamero naredili posnetke žlez. S programom AxioVision 4.6 (Carl Zeiss) smo merili premer acinusov krmilnih žlez pri delavkah iz poskusa. Ocenili smo njihovo razvitost pri različni starosti delavk. 2.4 Pojavljanje spor Nosema spp. v prebavilih Mrtvice smo dnevno shranjevali na temperaturi -20 C za pregled na število spor Nosema spp. Zadke mrtvic smo prenesli v terilnico, dodali po 1 ml vode/zadek in material macerirali. Kapljico macerata smo kanili na hemocitometer (Bürker-Türk) in pod 400- kratno mikroskopsko povečavo smo v petih kvadratkih hemocitometra prešteli spore. Izračun št. spor/posamezno delavko smo izvedli po formuli: 2.5 Statistična analiza Št. spor = Povprečno št. spor v petih kvadratkih 4 x Rezultate smo statistično ovrednostili s paketom SPSS for Windows, verzija Analizo variance (ANOVA) smo uporabili za testiranje vrednosti premera mešičkov krmilnih žlez med skupinami in starostjo delavk; za statistično značilne razlike smo uporabili LSD test. Za Kaplan-Mayerjevo preživitveno analizo smo kot skupinsko spremenljivko uporabili skupino sirupi. 3. REZULTATI IN RAZPRAVA 3.1 Dolgoživost čebel V vseh poskusnih skupinah je nad 90-odstotkov delavk preživelo prvih 10 dni. V skupini 'Ambrosia' so po Kaplan-Mayer krivulji delavke odmirale hitreje kot v ostalih treh skupinah. Po 15. dnevu starosti delavk jih je odmrlo že nad 50-odstotkov, medtem ko je približno toliko delavk v skupini 'Apiinvert' odmrlo šele po 24. dneh, v skupini 'Apiinvert' in 'sladkorna raztopina' po 30. in 33. dneh starosti (slika 1). Med skupinami so statistično značilne razlike (F = 4,651; df = 3; P < 0,01). Delavke so imele najdaljšo 4

10 življenjsko dobo v skupini 'sladkorna raztopina' in 'TruSweet', kjer jih je starost 39 dni dočakalo okoli 10 odstotkov. Čebele se prilagajajo svojim fiziološkim potrebam glede na funkcijo, ki jo imajo. V našem primeru, v laboratorijskih pogojih delavke niso oskrbovale zalege, temveč so na kosu satne osnove oblikovale sat in v izgrajene satne celice polnile sirup. V primerih, ko delavke shranjujejo zalogo v satje, se izbira delavk, tudi med mirovanjem, nagiba v korist ogljikovih hidratov (Altaye in sod., 2010). Vsebnost in sestava glukoze, fruktoze in saharoze v sirupih je verjetno vplivala na preživitveno sposobnost delavk v poskusu. 'Ambrosia' sirup po informacijah proizvajalca vsebuje 40 odstotkov fruktoze, 30 odstotkov glukoze, saharoze in vode. V sirupih 'Apiinvert' in 'TruSweet' je razmerje fruktoza-glukoza bolj izenačeno in sirupu 'TruSweet', ki ne vsebuje saharoze. Sladkorna raztopina vsebuje rafiniran pesni sladkor v obliki saharoze in so jo delavke razmeroma hitro zaužile (osebno opažanje). Slika 1. Kumulativni proporc preživetja čebel pri krmljenju z različnimi sirupi spomladi Podatki so analizirani s Kaplan-Mayerjevo preživitveno analizo. Različne črke označujejo značilne razlike (P < 0,01) po enosmernem testu ANOVA. Figure 1. Cumulative proportion of honeybees surviving on different syrups in spring Data are analised using Kaplan-Mayer survival analysis. Different letters denote significant differences at P < 0.01 using one-way ANOVA. 3.2 Velikost acinov krmilnih žlez Delavke za pravilen razvoj krmilnih žlez potrebujejo proteinsko hrano, ki jo v naravi dobijo s cvetnim prahom. V laboratorijskih poskusih se delavkam žleze slabše razvijajo in so v primerjavi z novoizleženimi delavkami v družini manjše od 80 µm (Crailsheim in Stolberg, 1989; Deseyn in Billen, 2005). Žleze so kot organ, ki proizvaja matični mleček, koristne pri ugotavljanju različnih vplivov na čebele, kot na primer Nosema spp. (Liu, 5

11 1990), različne vrste cvetnega prahu (Pernal in. Currie, 2000), gensko spremenjenih organizmov (Babendreier in sod., 2005) in pesticidov (Smodiš Škerl in Gregorc, 2010). Razvijati se pričnejo takoj, ko se delavka izleže. Proizvajajo matični mleček, s katerim krmijo zalego, matico in tudi starejše delavke. Po velikosti so največje pri 6 do 12 dni starih delavkah, ko je na vrhuncu tudi izločanje mlečka (Deseyn in Billen, 2005). Nato se žleze zmanjšajo in degenerirajo. V naši raziskavi smo merili premer acinusov krmilnih žlez pri mladih delavkah v poskusu. Ugotovili smo, da znotraj iste starosti ni statistično značilnih razlik med skupinami. Značilne razlike so le v velikosti acinusov med delavkami starimi 2 in 7 dni, v skupini 'Apiinvert' (F = 13,732; df = 2; P < 0,0001), po testu LSD (preglednica 1). Morfološke lastnosti acinusov krmilnih žlez so odvisne od starosti delavk, naloge, ki jo opravljajo, in prehrane. Sladkorna raztopina v celicah krmilnih žlez pospešuje pojav celične smrti in povzroča degeneracijo (Furquim in sod., 2004). Visoko energijska hrana, ki je glavna prehrana starejših, pašnih čebel (Szolderits in Crailsheim, 1993), vpliva na spremembe v celicah krmilnih žlez tako, da podležejo specifičnim procesom, ki privedejo do smrti celic (Silva de Moraes in Bowen, 2000). Pri delavkah, ki smo jim merili velikost acinusov, se je velikost 7 dni starih delavk hitro zmanjšala glede na velikost pri žlezah delavk starih 2 dni (značilno pri sirupu Apiinvert). Preglednica 1. Premer acinusov krmilnih žlez pri delavkah starih 0-24 ur, 2 in 7 dni. (povprečne vrednosti ± SD; n = 10 acinusov na čebelo, 3 čebele v posamezni skupini in starosti). Različne črke označujejo statistično značilne razlike pri p < 0,05 (ANOVA s post-hoc testi). Table 1. Acinar diameters in hypopharyngeal glands of workers aged 0-24 hrs, 2 and 7 days (mean ± SD; n = 10 acini per bee, 3 bees per group and age. Different letters denote significant differences at p < 0.05 (ANOVA with post-hoc tests). Skupina Group Starost delavk (dni) Age of workers (days) Povprečje (µm) Average (µm) Pred poskusom Before the experiment TruSweet 1 Apiinvert 2 Ambrosia 3 Sladkorna raztopina Sugar syrup ,56 43,53 37,72 59,97 a 29,23 b 53,45 30,33 60,09 34,56 SD ±16,52 ±6,95 ±12,53 ±8,95 ±2,62 ±16,12 ±3,12 ±7,39 ±0, Pojavljanje spor Nosema spp. v srednjem črevesu Pri delavkah-mrtvicah v poskusu so se spore Nosema spp. pojavile šele po 25. dnevu starosti. Pod en milijon spor na posamezno delavko smo ugotovili v skupinah, kjer so bile delavke krmljene s sirupi (slika 2A). Mrtvice iz skupine s sladkorno raztopino so imele v črevesju med 1,4 x 10 6 in 48 x 10 6 spor, pri katerih se je število spor povečevalo s starostjo (slika 2B). 6

12 A B Slika 2. A Prikaz okužbe s sporami Nosema spp. pri delavkah v starosti od 25 do 38 dni, ki so bile krmljene z enim od sirupov ('TruSweet', 'Apiinvert', 'Ambrosia'). B Število spor pri delavkah, ki so bile krmljene s 'sladkorno raztopino'. Figure 2. A Infection with Nosema spp. spores in workers aged 25 to 38 days fed with one of the syrups ('TruSweet', 'Apiinvert', 'Ambrosia'). B Number of Nosema spp. spores in workers fed with 'sugar syrup'. Mikrosporidiji spadajo med plesni in tvorijo spore, ki se razvijajo znotraj epitelnih celic srednjega črevesa. Okužujejo različne gostitelje, od insektov in vse do sesalcev (Adl in sod. 2005). Nosema spp. parazitira evropsko in azijsko medonosno čebelo. Razmnoževalni ciklus poteka v epitelnih celicah srednjega črevesa čebele, povzroči propad epitelija. Predhodno poznanega parazita evropske medonosne čebele, Nosema apis, je izpodrinila azijska Nosema ceranae, ki se je razširila s svojega prvotnega gostitelja (azijska čebela, Apis cerana) (Higes in sod., 2006). Pojavlja se tako v zdravih čebeljih družinah kot v šibkih (Cox-Foster in sod., 2007) in lahko postopno vpliva na odmiranje družin v jeseni in pozimi ter zmanjša donos medu (Martin-Hernandez in sod., 2007). Znaki okužbe niso vidni, dokler matica ni več sposobna nadomestiti izgube okuženih umirajočih delavk (Higes in sod., 2008). Naug in Gibbs (2009) poročata, da so bile v poskusu okužene čebele bolj odzivne na sprejemanje sladkorja, kar je kazalo na zmanjšano tendenco deliti hrano z drugimi čebelami, trofalakso. Večje odmiranje čebel in večja potreba po hrani se je pokazalo v poskusu pri čebelah, ki so bile umetno okužene z Nosema ceranae, kot pri skupini, okuženi z Nosema apis (Martin-Hernandez in sod., 2011). Rezultati naše raziskave kažejo, da dolgoživost ni pogojena s stopnjo okužbe z Nosema spp., vsaj dokler je na voljo dovolj hrane. Občutno večjo stopnjo okuženosti s sporami so imele delavke v skupini 'sladkorna raztopina' (slika 2), vendar so živele dlje kot manj okužene delavke v skupini 'Apiinvert' in 'Ambrosia'. Vplivi na razvoj oziroma degeneracijo krmilnih žlez so pri vseh testiranih sirupih podobni; krmljenje zgolj z energijsko hrano (sladkorji) ne omogoča razvoja žlez, ki pri tem hitro zmanjšajo svojo velikost, degenerirajo in ne izločajo matičnega mlečka. Njihova funkcija se v laboratorijskih pogojih približa potrebam pašnih čebel, pri katerih žleze izločajo encime za razgradnjo polisaharidov, kot je škrob (Hrassnigg in sod., 2005), ki jih potrebujejo v metabolizmu letalne mišičnine. Daljšo preživetje delavk, ki so jih krmili s sladkorjem, sta ugotovila že Barker in Lehner (1978). Preživitveno sposobnost čebel sta primerjala s skupino, kjer so imele čebele na razpolago sirup z visokim deležem fruktoze oziroma med. Pri teh so čebele v povprečju živele manj dni. 7

13 Sirupi z visokim deležem fruktoze in med vsebujejo hidroksimetilfurfural (HMF), ki nastaja pri visokih temperaturah in se v procesu kislinsko katalizirane dehidracije oblikuje fruktoza. HMF je strupen za čebele, kadar njegova vsebnost v medu ali sirupu presega 30 ppm (delcev na milijon) (LeBlanc in sod., 2009). Zaradi te lastnosti je potrebno takšne sladkorje pred dajanje čebelam, primerno skladiščiti. V medu se vsebnost HMF sicer prične dvigovati šele pri temperaturi 45 C (LeBlanc in sod., 2009). Pri čebelah, ki so se zastrupile z medom z višjo vsebnostjo HMF, so se pojavili simptomi dizenterije. Prav takšno klinično sliko je pokazal tudi poskus, kjer so čebele krmili z grozdnim sirupom se je kot najboljša hrana (glede na dolgoživost) med sirupom z visokim deležem fruktoze, grozdnim in koruznim sirupom ter medom, pokazal prav sladkor v obliki sladkorne raztopine (Barker in Lehner, 1978). Vendar je v sladkorni raztopini delež vode precej večji, zato čebele porabijo več energije za odvajanje vode in predelavo saharoze. 4. ZAKLJUČEK - V našem poskusu krmljenja s sirupi smo ugotovili, da so imele najdaljšo življenjsko dobo delavke, ki smo jih krmili s sirupom 'TruSweet' in s sladkorno raztopino; - Največje število spor Nosema spp. so imele mrtvice iz skupine s sladkorno raztopino; - V velikosti acinusov krmilnih žlez ni bilo značilnih razlik med skupinami. Pri dva dni starih delavkah so bile žleze večje v primerjavi z žlezami pri sedem dni starih delavkah; - Glede na naše rezultate so delavke v skupini 'TruSweet' živele najdlje in imele v primerjavi s skupino 'sladkorna raztopina' zelo majhno število spor Nosema. 5. LITERATURA Adl S.M.,, Taylor M.F.J.R. (2005) The new higher level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the taxonomy of protists. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 52, Altaye S.Z., Pirk C.W.W., Crewe R.M., Nicolson S.W. (2010) Convergence of carbohydrate-biased intake targets in caged worker honeybees fed different protein sources. J. Exp. Biol. 213, Amdam G.V., Omholt S.W. (2003) The hive bee to forager transition in honeybee colonies: the double repressor hypothesis. J. Theor. Biol. 223, Babendreier D., Kalberer N.M., Romeis J., Fluri P., Mulligan E., Bigler F. (2005) Influence of Bt-transgenic pollen, Bt-toxin and protease inhibito (SBTI) ingeston on development of the hypopharyngeal glands in honeybees. Apidologie 36, Barker R.J., Lehner Y. (1978) Laboratory comparison of high fructose corn syrup, grape syrup, honey, and sucrose syrup as maintenance food for caged honeybees. Apidologie 9, Ceksteryte V., Racys J. (2006) The quality of syrups used for bee feeding before winter and their suitability for bee wintering. J. Apicult. Sci. 50, Cox-Foster D.L.,..., Lipkin W.I. (2007). A metagenomic survey of microbes in honey bee colony collapse disorder. Science 318, Crailsheim K. (1990) The protein balance of the honeybee worker. Apidologie 21,

14 Crailsheim K., Stolberg E. (1989) Influence of diet, age and colony condition upon intestinal proteolytic activity and size of the hyopharyngeal glands in the honeybee (Apis mellifera L.). J. Insecta Physiol. 35, Cruz-Landim C. da, Hadek R. (1969) Ultrastructure of Apis mellifera hypopharyngeal gland, Proc. 6th Int. Congr. IUSSI, Bern, Deseyn J., Billen J. (2005) Age-dependent morphology and ultrastructure of the hypopharyngeal gland of Apis mellifera workers (Hymenoptera, Apidae). Apidologie 36, Fluri, P., Luscher, M., Wille, H., Gerig, L. (1982) Changes in weight of the pharyngeal gland and haemolymph titres of juvenile hormone, protein and vitellogenin in worker honey bees. J. Insect Physiol. 28, Free J.B. (1961) Hypopharyngeal gland development and divison of labour in honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies, Proc. R. Entomol. Soc. Lond. B 36, 5 8. Free J.B., Spencerbooth Y. (1961) Effect of feeding sugar syrup to honey-bee colonies. J. Agricult. Sci. 57, Furquim K.C.S., Camargo-Mathias M.I., Silva de Moraes R.L.M. (2004) Morphological modifications induced by an artificial diet on the hypopharyngeal glands of Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera, Apidae) during their degenerative process. Sociobiol. 43, Halberstadt K. (1980) Electrophoretische Untersuchungen zur Secretionstätigkeit der Hypopharyxdrüse der Honigbiene Apis mellifera L. Insectes Soc. 27, Higes M., Martín R., Meana A. (2006) Nosema ceranae, a new microsporidian parasite in honeybees in Europe. J. Invert. Pathol. 92, Higes M., Martín-Hernández R., Botías C., Garrido-Bailón E., González-Porto A.V., Barrios L., in sod. (2008) How natural infection by Nosema ceranae causes honeybee colony collapse. Environ. Microbiol. 10, Kratky E. (1931) Morphologie and Physiologie der Drüssen in Kopf un Thorax der Honigbiene (Apis mellifica L.). Z. Wiss. Biol. 139, LeBlanc B., Eggleston G., Sammataro D., Cornett C., Dufault R., Deeby T., St Cyr E. (2009) Formation of hydroxymethylfurfural in domestic high fructose corn syrup and its toxicity to the honey bee (Apis mellifera). J. Agricult. Food Sci. 57, Liu T.P. (1990) Ultrastructural changes in the secretion granules of the hypopharyngeal glands of the honeybee infected by Nosema apis and after treatment with fumagillin. Tissue and cell 22, Martín-Hernández R., Meana A., Prieto L., Martínez Salvador A., Garrido-Bailón E., Higes M. (2007) Outcome of colonization of Apis mellifera by Nosema ceranae. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73, Martín-Hernández R., Botías C., Barrios L., Martínez-Salvador A., Meana A., Mayack C., Higes M. (2011) Comparison of the energetic stress associated with experimental Nosema ceranae and Nosema apis infection of honeybees (Apis mellifera). Parasitol. Res. 109, Mattila H.R., Otis G.W. (2006) The effects of pollen availability during larval development on the behaviour and physiology of spring-reared honey bee workers. Apidologie 37, Mayack C., Naug D. (2009) Energetic stress in the honeybee Apis mellifera from Nosema ceranae infection. J. Invert. Pathol. 100, Maurizio A. (1959) Factors influencing the lifespan of bees. Ciba Foundation Symp.,

15 Naug D., Gibbs A. (2009) Behavioral changes mediated by hunger in honey bees infected with Nosema ceranae, Apidologie, DOI: /apido/ Neukirch A. (1982) Dependence of the life span of the honeybee (Apis mellifica) upon flight performance and energy consumption. J. Comb. Physiol. B 146, Ohashi K., Natori S., Kubo T. (1999) Expression of amylase and glucose oxidase in the hypopharyngeal gland with age-dependent role change of the worker honeybee (Apis mellifera L.), Eur. J. Biochem. 265, Pernal S. F. and Currie R. W. (2000). Pollen quality of fresh and 1-year-old single pollen diets for worker honey bees (Apis mellifera L.). Apidologie 31, Szolderits M.J., Crailsheim K. (1993) A comparison of pollen consumption and digestion in honeybee (Apis mellifera carnica) drones and workers. J. Insect Physiol. 39, Silva de Moraes R.L.M., Bowen I.D. (2000) Modes of cell death in hypopharyngeal glands of honey bee (Apis mellifera L.). Cell Biol. Int. 24, Smodiš Škerl, M.I., Gregorc A. (2010) Heat shock proteins and cell death in situ localisation in hypopharyngeal glands of honeybee (Apis mellifera carnica) workers after imidacloprid or coumaphos treatment. Apidologie 41, Smodiš Škerl, M.I. Morfološke in histološke spremembe v razvoju hipofaringealnih žlez medonosne čebele (Apis mellifera carnica) : doktorska disertacija = Morphological and histological changes in development of hypopharyngeal glands in honeybee (Apis mellifera carnica) : Ph. D. Thesis. Maribor, Fakulteta za kmetijstvo in biosistemske vede, 2011, 101 str. Szymaś B., Przybył A. (2007) Midgut histological picture of the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) following consumption of substitute feeds supplemented with feed additives. Nauka Przyr. Technol. 4,

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