Molecular Diagnosis of Lung Cancer

Transcription

1 Molecular Diagnosis of Lung Cancer Lucian R. Chirieac, M.D. Assistant Professor of Pathology Harvard Medical School Staff Pathologist, Department of Pathology Brigham and Women's Hospital 75 Francis Street Boston, MA Phone: Fax:

2 INTRODUCTION Approximately cases of lung cancer were diagnosed in the United States in 2009, accounting for about 15% of all new cancers.[1] Unfortunately, the 5-year overall survival rate did not change substantially in the past 30 years and is 15% despite current therapeutic approaches [2]. Lung cancer is one of the most challenging cancers to treat and the standard therapy includes surgical resection, platinum-based chemotherapy, and radiation therapy alone or in combination. New research involves new targeted therapies and milder treatment regimens that improve survival. Although improvements seen in the trials are modest, the hope is that an increased number of biomarkers will be available in the near future to help clinicians predict which patients are most likely to benefit from such therapies. This presentation focuses on the molecular biomarkers that help identify patients that will benefit from targeted therapies, describes the basic molecular biology principles and selected molecular diagnostic techniques and the pathological features correlated with molecular abnormalities in lung cancer. Lastly, new molecular abnormalities described in lung cancer that are predictive to novel promising targeted agents in various phases of clinical trials are discussed. This is particularly important since investigation and analysis of lung cancer for particular abnormalities expands the expertise of the pulmonary oncologic pathologist, who in addition to conventional pathologic analysis of surgical lung specimens will determine the molecular abnormalities of lung cancer that may be able to predict for sensitivity and resistance to various chemotherapeutic agents and targeted therapies [3] 2

3 MOLECULAR ALTERATIONS IN LUNG CANCER In the past years, given the development of new targeted therapies, tremendous efforts are directed towards identifying potentially drugable molecular alterations, especially against known activating mutations. Although numerous mutations have been described in lung adenocarcinoma[4] the mutation status remains unknown in more than 50% of cases.[5] Despite these efforts, so far we can identify at the present moment therapeutic targets in only 20% of lung cancers. Genotype Phenotype Correlations in Lung Cancer The current classification of lung adenocarcinoma by the World Health Organization recognizes several distinct morphologic subtypes of adenocarcinoma: papillary, acinar, solid and bronchioloalveolar [6]. However, the majority of lung adenocarcinomas exhibit combinations of morphologic patterns and are categorized as mixed subtype [6-8]. While the biologic basis for the histologic subtypes remains an area of active investigation [8], there is evidence that some subtypes may be associated with specific molecular alterations [8-13] or a better outcome [14-16]. Lung cancers with EGFR abnormalities EGFR Recognized mechanisms of EGFR gain of function in NSCLC include somatic activating mutations in the exons encoding the tyrosine kinase domain and EGFR gene amplification [17, 18]. The EGFR mutation status is determined by gene sequencing, gene copy number determined 3

4 by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) or chromogenic in-situ hybridization (CISH), and protein expression determined by immunohistochemistry (IHC). Several mutations have been recently described in the TK domain of EGFR [17, 19]. Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is expressed in 50% of NSCLCs, and its expression is correlated with poor prognosis [20]. These two factors make EGFR and its family members prime candidates for the development of targeted therapeutics [21]. EGFR gene amplification predicts response to TKI therapy in at least a subset of NSCLC patients. EGFR gene amplification is detected in some EGFR-mutation positive patients as well, and it is reported to be associated with disease progression.[22] A subset of lung adenocarcinomas has activation of growth factor receptor (EGFR) by mutations and/or amplification but the interaction between them is complex and unclear. Sholl et al studied a unique cohort known to have a high prevalence of EGFR mutations using novel techniques, including EGFR-mutation-specific immunohistochemistry, the authors showed that EGFRamplified lung adenocarcinomas have distinct genetic alterations, unique clinicopathologic features and worsened prognosis.[22, 23] Furthermore, EGFR amplification and EGFR mutations are heterogenously distributed within any given tumor. These are novel and important findings with implications for the efficacy of treatment with tyrosine kinase inhibitors in patients with EGFR-mutant lung adenocarcinoma.[22] Recent reports suggest that chromogenic in-situ hybridization (CISH) can serve as a reliable alternative to FISH in determining EGFR copy number status in NSCLC. [24]. While FISH is an established modality for assessing gene amplification in the case of EGFR in NSCLC, it is an expensive and time-consuming assay that requires a special protocol, materials and a fluorescent microscope. In contrast, chromogenic in situ hybridization (CISH) utilizes a peroxidase reaction 4

5 to detect the locus of interest, can be carried out in an immunohistochemistry laboratory and is interpreted by standard light microscopy [24]. The EGFR status determined by gene sequencing, gene copy number determined by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and protein expression determined by immunohistochemistry may each contribute important information regarding which patients are likely to benefit from EGFR TKI therapy [25]. Mutations in the tyrosine kinase domain of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), have prognostic significance since patients with EGFR-mutant NSCLC have prolonged survival compared with those with wild-type disease, regardless of the treatment received [3, 26]. Although EGFR mutations are predictive of response to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) therapy, they do not appear to be predictive of a differential effect on survival. Alternatively, the other EGFR markers, protein expression determined by immunohistochemistry or gene amplification determined by FISH or CISH, are better predictors of a survival benefit from EGFR TKI [24, 27]. EGFR pathway is the best current example in lung cancer that consists of the EGFR mutations and amplification that identify patients with nonsmall-cell lung cancer who respond preferentially to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Genotype-Phenotype Correlations In patients with lung adenocarcinoma treated with erlotinib and gefitinib, favorable responses were associated with adenocarcinoma with bronchioloalveolar (BAC) patterns.[12] This finding led to trials of gefitinib and erlotinib in patients with BAC that showed that 17%-22% of patients had a response to gefitinib.[28, 29] The relationship of EGFR mutation status with adenocarcinoma subtype is a matter of intense debate.[30, 31] Genetic abnormalities can be seen 5

6 in different histologies although with various frequency. One characteristic correlation is that mucinous adenocarcinoma (former mucinous BAC) is exclusively TTF1 negative, EGFR mutation negative but may have Ras mutation, and expresses CDX2 because of their derivation from bronchiolar mucinous goblet cells.[9] Lung cancers with ALK abnormalities Anaplastic large cell lymphoma kinase gene (ALK) was originally identified through cloning of the t(2;5)(p23;35) translocation found in a subset of anaplastic large cell lymphomas (ALCLs), a tumor of T-cell lineage [32, 33]. ALK encodes a tyrosine kinase receptor that is normally expressed only in select neuronal cell types. In ALK-rearranged anaplastic large cell lymphomas (ALCLs), the intracytoplasmic portion of ALK is fused to the N-terminal portion of nucleophosmin (NPM) resulting in a chimeric protein with constitutive kinase activity. Several other balanced translocations involving ALK have been discovered in ALCLs; however the various resulting chimeric proteins all retain the ALK kinase domain [34]. The importance of the kinase activity is exemplified by ALK-rearranged ALCL cell lines which are dependent upon ALK enzymatic activity for growth and survival. Recently, ALK rearrangements were identified in rare non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines and in isolated primary adenocarcinomas from Japanese and Chinese populations [35, 36]. The majority of the ALK rearrangements within NSCLCs result from an interstitial deletion and inversion in chromosome 2p and result in the EML4-ALK fusion gene product [35, 36]. EML4 encodes Echinoderm microtubule associated protein-like 4- a protein that may function in microtubule assembly. Transgenic mice expressing EML4-ALK within the lung epithelium develop numerous tumors, thereby confirming the oncogenic nature of the 6

7 mutant protein [37]. Murine tumors and human cell lines expressing EML-ALK are sensitive to inhibitors of ALK kinase activity [37, 38]. Together these data indicate that, like EGFR, ALK is an important molecular target in lung carcinoma. Thus, it will be critical to efficiently and accurately identify those lung adenocarcinomas that harbor ALK rearrangements in routine practice in order to guide the appropriate clinical therapy. None of ALK-rearranged adenocarcinomas showed coexistent mutations in EGFR. Recently published studies show that ALK-rearranged adenocarcinomas are more likely to present in younger patients with a history of never-smoking, and at higher stage relative to those without ALK rearrangements (ALK germline).[39] The majority of ALK-rearranged adenocarcinomas had a distinct histology represented by solid tumor growth and frequent signetring cells with abundant intracellular mucin.[39] Furthermore, the routine screening for ALK rearrangements in lung adenocarcinomas is challenging and recently developed antibodies show promise for applicability in the clinical laboratory.[40] A novel, recently described monoclonal antibody with increased sensitivity for ALK, uses an IHC assay that correctly identifies ALKrearranged lung adenocarcinoma with high reproducibility. This assay will facilitate the identification of ALK-rearranged lung adenocarcinomas and thereby better direct patients to appropriate treatment regimens in clinical trials.[40] Other Molecular Abnormalities That Show Promise for Targeted Therapies in Lung Cancer HER-2 Unlike the other members of the HER family, HER-2 is not strictly a receptor tyrosine kinase because no high-affinity endogenous ligand has been identified. HER-2 acts as a signaling 7

8 network coordinator and amplifier when it heterodimerizes with other HER family members. HER-2 mutations occur in 2% of NSCLCs [41, 42]. They are in-frame insertions in exon 20 and have targeted the corresponding TK domain region, as in EGFR-insertion mutations. These mutations occur in the same subpopulation as those with EGFR mutations (adenocarcinoma, never-smoker, East Asian, and women) [31]. HER-2 is frequently overexpressed in NSCLC and appears to be associated with drug resistance, increased metastatic potential, increased production of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and poor prognosis.[43]. Trastuzumab (Herceptin) is a chimerized monoclonal antibody against HER-2. Combinations of trastuzumab and chemotherapy are well tolerated, with response rates of 21% to 40%.[44] One trial showed that patients whose tumors highly overexpressed HER-2 (3+) by immunohistochemistry or evidence of amplification by FISH showed a good response. It appears that highly overexpressing HER-2 cases of NSCLC (3+ by immunohistochemistry), although relatively infrequent (3% to 9%), may show benefit with treatment with trastuzumab. c-kit The RTK c-kit is highly expressed in SCLC (although it is not mutated), and this has led to clinical trials with the specific c-kit inhibitor (STI-571, Glivec, Novartis), alone and in combination therapy. VEGF Antibodies against the angiogenic factor VEGF and small molecules against VEGF receptors, such as SU5416, which is an inhibitor of Flk-1 receptor, are being tested in NSCLC and other tumor types. More recently, modification of gene expression using sirnas has the promise of being the most powerful tool yet. 8

9 CONCLUSIONS Surgical excision remains the only therapeutic modality that can cure selected lung cancer patients. Pathologists play an important role in the surgical management of patients with lung cancer, from preoperative diagnosis and staging, to intraoperative evaluation of the extent of distant disease and margin status, to postoperative assessment of tumor genetic alterations. Furthermore, classification algorithms based on the presence of genetic alterations found in lung cancer can be used to identify drugs or therapeutic agents targeting these alterations. The clinical application of molecular diagnostic techniques has allowed a more precise and rapid assessment of lung cancer. In this era of genomics and proteomics, there is an expectation of significant advances in early diagnosis of lung cancer, the elucidation of new relevant categories of disease, and the development of more targeted therapy. Specific disease profiles may be generated for individual patients to assist in the selection of therapy, and individualized therapy may be present in the future. Understanding the molecular events underlying pathogenic processes will hopefully translate into developing curative systemic therapy and improved patient survival. 9

10 REFERENCES 1. Jemal, A., et al., Cancer statistics, CA Cancer J Clin, (4): p Jemal, A., et al., Cancer statistics, CA Cancer J Clin, (2): p Eberhard, D.A., et al., Mutations in the epidermal growth factor receptor and in KRAS are predictive and prognostic indicators in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer treated with chemotherapy alone and in combination with erlotinib. J Clin Oncol, (25): p Ding, L., et al., Somatic mutations affect key pathways in lung adenocarcinoma. Nature, (7216): p Herbst, R.S., J.V. Heymach, and S.M. Lippman, Lung cancer. N Engl J Med, (13): p Travis, W., Pathology and genetics of tumours of the lung, pleura, thymus and heart. World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer., International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer., International Academy of Pathology. 2004, Lyon: IARC Press. 7. Barletta, J.A., et al., Clinical Significance of TTF-1 Protein Expression and TTF-1 Gene Amplification in Lung Adenocarcinoma. J Cell Mol Med, Motoi, N., et al., Lung adenocarcinoma: modification of the 2004 WHO mixed subtype to include the major histologic subtype suggests correlations between papillary and micropapillary adenocarcinoma subtypes, EGFR mutations and gene expression analysis. Am J Surg Pathol, (6): p Finberg, K.E., et al., Mucinous differentiation correlates with absence of EGFR mutation and presence of KRAS mutation in lung adenocarcinomas with bronchioloalveolar features. J Mol Diagn, (3): p Haneda, H., et al., Epidermal growth factor receptor gene mutation defines distinct subsets among small adenocarcinomas of the lung. Lung Cancer, (1): p Hsieh, R.K., et al., Female sex and bronchioloalveolar pathologic subtype predict EGFR mutations in non-small cell lung cancer. Chest, (1): p Miller, V.A., et al., Bronchioloalveolar pathologic subtype and smoking history predict sensitivity to gefitinib in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol, (6): p Matsumoto, S., et al., Frequent EGFR mutations in noninvasive bronchioloalveolar carcinoma. Int J Cancer, (10): p Jackman, D.M., L.R. Chirieac, and P.A. Janne, Bronchioloalveolar carcinoma: a review of the epidemiology, pathology, and treatment. Semin Respir Crit Care Med, (3): p Noguchi, M., et al., Small adenocarcinoma of the lung. Histologic characteristics and prognosis. Cancer, (12): p Sakao, Y., et al., Prognostic significance of a histologic subtype in small adenocarcinoma of the lung: the impact of nonbronchioloalveolar carcinoma components. Ann Thorac Surg, (1): p

11 17. Lynch, T.J., et al., Activating mutations in the epidermal growth factor receptor underlying responsiveness of non-small-cell lung cancer to gefitinib. N Engl J Med, (21): p Testa, J.R. and J.M. Siegfried, Chromosome abnormalities in human non-small cell lung cancer. Cancer Res, (9 Suppl): p. 2702s-2706s. 19. Paez, J.G., et al., EGFR mutations in lung cancer: correlation with clinical response to gefitinib therapy. Science, (5676): p Tsao, M.S., et al., Erlotinib in lung cancer - molecular and clinical predictors of outcome. N Engl J Med, (2): p Sharma, S.V., et al., Epidermal growth factor receptor mutations in lung cancer. Nat Rev Cancer, (3): p Sholl, L.M., et al., Lung adenocarcinoma with EGFR amplification has distinct clinicopathologic and molecular features in never-smokers. Cancer Res, (21): p Yu, J., et al., Mutation-specific antibodies for the detection of EGFR mutations in nonsmall-cell lung cancer. Clin Cancer Res, (9): p Sholl, L.M., et al., Validation of chromogenic in situ hybridization for detection of EGFR copy number amplification in nonsmall cell lung carcinoma. Mod Pathol, (10): p Shepherd, F.A. and R. Rosell, Weighing tumor biology in treatment decisions for patients with non-small cell lung cancer. J Thorac Oncol, Suppl 2: p. S Sasaki, H., et al., EGFR and erbb2 mutation status in Japanese lung cancer patients. Int J Cancer, (1): p Hirsch, F.R., et al., Molecular predictors of outcome with gefitinib in a phase III placebocontrolled study in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol, (31): p West, H.L., et al., Gefitinib therapy in advanced bronchioloalveolar carcinoma: Southwest Oncology Group Study S0126. J Clin Oncol, (12): p Miller, V.A., et al., Molecular characteristics of bronchioloalveolar carcinoma and adenocarcinoma, bronchioloalveolar carcinoma subtype, predict response to erlotinib. J Clin Oncol, (9): p Marchetti, A., et al., EGFR mutations in non-small-cell lung cancer: analysis of a large series of cases and development of a rapid and sensitive method for diagnostic screening with potential implications on pharmacologic treatment. J Clin Oncol, (4): p Shigematsu, H., et al., Clinical and biological features associated with epidermal growth factor receptor gene mutations in lung cancers. J Natl Cancer Inst, (5): p Lamant, L., et al., High incidence of the t(2;5)(p23;q35) translocation in anaplastic large cell lymphoma and its lack of detection in Hodgkin's disease. Comparison of cytogenetic analysis, reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, and P-80 immunostaining. Blood, (1): p Morris, S.W., et al., Fusion of a kinase gene, ALK, to a nucleolar protein gene, NPM, in non-hodgkin's lymphoma. Science, (5151): p

12 34. Swerdlow, S.H., International Agency for Research on Cancer., and World Health Organization., WHO classification of tumours of haematopoietic and lymphoid tissues. 4th ed. 2008, Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer. 439 p. 35. Soda, M., et al., Identification of the transforming EML4-ALK fusion gene in non-smallcell lung cancer. Nature, (7153): p Rikova, K., et al., Global survey of phosphotyrosine signaling identifies oncogenic kinases in lung cancer. Cell, (6): p Soda, M., et al., A mouse model for EML4-ALK-positive lung cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, (50): p Koivunen, J.P., et al., EML4-ALK fusion gene and efficacy of an ALK kinase inhibitor in lung cancer. Clin Cancer Res, (13): p Rodig, S.J., et al., Unique clinicopathologic features characterize ALK-rearranged lung adenocarcinoma in the western population. Clin Cancer Res, (16): p Mino-Kenudson, M., et al., A Novel, Highly Sensitive Antibody Allows for the Routine Detection of ALK-Rearranged Lung Adenocarcinomas by Standard Immunohistochemistry. Clin Cancer Res. 16(5): p Shigematsu, H., et al., Somatic mutations of the HER2 kinase domain in lung adenocarcinomas. Cancer Res, (5): p Stephens, P., et al., Lung cancer: intragenic ERBB2 kinase mutations in tumours. Nature, (7008): p Giaccone, G., Clinical impact of novel treatment strategies. Oncogene, (45): p Azzoli, C.G., et al., Trastuzumab in the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer. Semin Oncol, (1 Suppl 4): p