AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN low birth weight (LBW)
|
|
- Loraine Berry
- 6 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 X/05/$15.00/0 The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 90(8): Printed in U.S.A. Copyright 2005 by The Endocrine Society doi: /jc Normal Secretion and Action of the Gut Incretin Hormones Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 and Glucose- Dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide in Young Men with Low Birth Weight Jakob Hagen Schou,* Kasper Pilgaard,* Tina Vilsbøll, Christine B. Jensen, Carolyn F. Deacon, Jens Juul Holst, Aage Vølund, Sten Madsbad, and Allan A. Vaag Steno Diabetes Center (J.H.S., K.P., C.B.J., A.A.V.), 2820 Gentofte, Denmark; Department of Internal Medicine F (T.V.), Gentofte Hospital, DK 2820 Hellerup, Denmark; Department of Medical Physiology (C.F.D., J.J.H.), Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen, DK 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark; Novo Nordisk (A.V.), DK-2880 Bagsværd, Denmark; and Department of Endocrinology (S.M.), Hvidovre University Hospital, DK 2650 Hvidovre, Denmark Context: Low birth weight (LBW) is associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. An impaired incretin effect was reported previously in type 2 diabetic patients. Objective: We studied the secretion and action of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) in young LBW men (n 24) and matched normal birth weight controls (NBW) (n 25). First Published Online May 17, 2005 * J.H.S. and K.P. contributed equally to this study. Abbreviations: AUC, Area under the curve; BG incr, incremental blood glucose; DI, disposition index; GIP, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide-1; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; HOMA, homeostasis model assessment; LBW, low birth weight; NBW, normal birth weight; Si, insulin sensitivity; T2DM, type 2 diabetes mellitus. JCEM is published monthly by The Endocrine Society ( endo-society.org), the foremost professional society serving the endocrine community. Results: LBW subjects were 5 cm shorter but had a body mass index similar to NBW. LBW subjects had significantly elevated fasting and postprandial plasma glucose, as well as postprandial (standard meal test) plasma insulin and C-peptide concentrations, suggestive of insulin resistance. Insulin secretion in response to changes in glucose concentration ( -cell responsiveness ) during the meal test was similar in LBW and NBW but inappropriate in LBW relative to insulin sensitivity. Fasting and postprandial plasma GLP-1 and GIP levels were similar in the groups. First- and second-phase insulin responses were similar in LBW and NBW during a hyperglycemic clamp (7 mm) with infusion of GLP-1 or GIP, respectively, demonstrating normal action of these hormones on insulin secretion. Conclusion: Reduced secretion or action of GLP-1 or GIP does not explain a relative reduced -cell responsiveness to glucose or the slightly elevated plasma glucose concentrations observed in young LBW men. (J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90: , 2005) AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN low birth weight (LBW) and impairment of glucose homeostasis was first proposed by Hales and Barker (1) in Since then, several studies have confirmed and elaborated on these findings, thereby underscoring the importance of the intrauterine environment for the development of later adult diseases, including hypertension, cardiovascular disease (2), and abnormal glucose tolerance (3 8). Because the association between LBW and impaired glucose homeostasis becomes more pronounced with age, most research has been performed in elderly subjects. Nevertheless, recent studies have shown defects of glucose and insulin homeostasis in young adults and children with LBW (9, 10). The incretin effect is defined as an enhanced insulin secretion after oral vs. iv glucose administration due to the insulinotropic effect of the gastrointestinal hormones glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP). During the past two decades, evidence of various defects in the enteroinsular axis among type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients has accumulated. An impaired incretin effect in type 2 diabetic patients has been showed by Nauck et al. (11). Furthermore, recent studies have reported reduced postprandial secretion of GLP-1 in T2DM patients (12, 13). Animal studies have shown that mice with a targeted deletions of the GLP-1 and GIP receptor become glucose intolerant and develop fasting hyperglycemia (14, 15), supporting the hypothesis that impaired function of the enteroinsular axis contributes to the inappropriate insulin secretion in type 2 diabetes. The primary actions of GLP-1 on glucose homeostasis involve enhancement of glucose-dependent insulin secretion, decreased glucagon secretion, and subsequently reduced hepatic glucose production (16). Furthermore, GLP-1 inhibits gastric emptying and reduces appetite/food intake (17). Recent studies have also provided evidence of a beneficial effect on -cell proliferation (18, 19), islet neogenesis (20, 21), and reduced -cell apoptosis (22). GIP also has an insulinotropic effect on the -cell in healthy subjects and may play an important role in lipid metabolism (23). Together, GLP-1 and GIP account for approximately 50 60% of insulin secretion during a meal (24) We recently found evidence of a reduced insulin secretion (when corrected for insulin resistance) during an oral glucose tolerance test in a population of young men with LBW (25). Insulin secretion per se in response to an iv glucose bolus was 4912
2 Schou et al. Normal Incretin Secretion and Action in LBW Men J Clin Endocrinol Metab, August 2005, 90(8): not reduced, and we therefore proposed that defective secretion and/or action of the gut incretin hormones might explain (or contribute to) the disproportionately reduced insulin secretion and mildly elevated plasma glucose levels in these individuals. The aims of the present study were as follows: 1) to study the endogenous secretion of insulin, GLP-1, and GIP in response to a standard (physiological) breakfast meal test; 2) to quantify -cell responsiveness to glucose and the gut incretins during the breakfast meal in subject with LBW and normal birth weight (NBW); and 3) to estimate both the first- and the late-second-phase insulin response during a hyperglycemic clamp with continuous infusion of GIP or GLP-1. Thus, we hypothesized that defective secretion and/or action of one or both of the two incretin hormones GIP and GLP-1 might explain the inappropriate enhancement of insulin secretion in young men with LBW. Participants Subjects and Methods Forty-nine singleton Caucasian men born at term (39 41 wk) in in Copenhagen County were identified and recruited from the Danish Medical Birth Registry, according to birth weight. Twentyfour men (LBW) had birth weights below the 10th percentile (wk 39, 2800 g; wk 40, 2960 g; wk 41, 3010 g), whereas 25 (NBW) had birth weights in the upper normal range (50th to 90th percentile) (wk 39, g; wk 40, g; wk 41, g). None of the participants had parents, grandparents, or siblings who had any type of diabetes, and none received medication known to interfere with glucose homeostasis. The protocol was approved by the regional ethics committee, and procedures were performed according to the principles of The Helsinki Declaration. After thorough written and oral explanation of the study, all subjects gave their written consent. Experimental protocol Each subject was studied in randomized order on three separate occasions with intervals of a minimum of 7 d. Protocol 1 consisted of a meal test, and protocol 2 consisted of a hyperglycemic clamp in conjunction with continuous infusion of either GLP-1 (d 1) or GIP (d 2). Subjects were instructed to abstain from strenuous physical activity and to consume a diet rich in carbohydrate for a period of at least 48 h before each study day. Smoking was prohibited during experiments, as was any intake of food or drinks besides water. Study days began at 0830 h and were preceded by a 10-h overnight fast. Blood samples were obtained through a polyethylene catheter placed in a dorsal hand vein. Subjects were studied in a recumbent position, and the cannulated hand was kept in a heated box throughout the experiment. Protocol 1 (mixed meal test) All subjects underwent a meal tolerance test with measurement of plasma glucose, insulin, C-peptide, GIP, and GLP-1 in blood samples collected at 15, 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, 135, 165, and 195 min after intake of a standardized breakfast (served at 0800 h; 2370 kj; 47% carbohydrate, 19% protein, and 34% fat). Protocol 2 (hyperglycemic clamps) To quantify insulin secretion and the action of GLP-1 (d 1) and GIP (d 2), we used a hyperglycemic clamp (7 mmol/liter) with primed continuous infusion of GLP-1 or GIP, respectively. A polyethylene catheter was placed in an antecubital vein for test infusions (glucose and GLP-1, or glucose and GIP). At t 30 min, a 20% glucose bolus was infused to raise plasma glucose to 7 mmol/liter, calculated as [(7 mmol/ liter fasting plasma glucose 35 mg glucose weight in kilograms/ 1000) 5]. At t 2 min, a bolus of either GLP-1 or GIP was infused to increase the plasma concentration to approximately 120 and 1000 pmol/liter, respectively. At t 0 min, a continuous infusion of GLP-1 (60 pmol/kg h) or GIP (240 pmol/kg h) was initiated. Plasma glucose concentration was maintained at 7 mmol/liter by continuous infusion of 20% (w/v), glucose and infusion rates of glucose were adjusted every 5 min according to bed-site plasma glucose level. Arterialized blood was sampled at 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, 5, 0, 1, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, 60, 65, 75, 90, 105, and 120 min. The last 30 min of study time was predefined as steady-state period. Fasting samples for determinations of fasting levels of total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL), lowdensity lipoprotein, and triglycerides were also obtained. Analysis Plasma glucose was measured using an automated glucose oxidation method (Glucose Analyzer 2; Beckman Instruments, Fullerton, CA). Plasma insulin and C-peptide samples were centrifuged immediately at 4 C and stored at 80 C. Plasma insulin and C-peptide concentrations were determined by 1235 AutoDELPHIA automatic immunoassay system (Wallac Oy, Turku, Finland). The plasma insulin assay had a detection limit of approximately 3 pmol/liter. Cross-reactivity with intact pro-insulin was 51%, 35% with split pro-insulin and 92% with split pro-insulin (no detectable cross-reactivity with insulin), intraassay variation of 5%, and interassay variation of 8%. Cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, free fatty acids, and triglycerides were measured by enzymatic methods. Blood for analysis of GLP-1 and GIP was sampled in heparin-edta tubes (6 mmol/liter) with aprotinin (500 kiu/ml blood; Trasylol, Bayer, Leverkusen, Germany). Tubes were immediately cooled on ice and centrifuged at 4 C for 20 min. Plasma was stored at 20 C until analysis. Total GIP was measured using the C-terminally directed antiserum R65 (26, 27), which reacts fully with intact GIP and the N-terminally truncated metabolite GIP(3 42). The assay has a detection limit of less than 2 pmol/liter and an intraassay variation of approximately 6%. Intact, biologically active GIP was measured using a newly developed assay. The assay is specific for the intact N terminus of GIP and cross-reacts less than 0.1% with GIP(3 42), or with the structurally related peptides GLP-1(7 36) amide, GLP-1(9 36) amide, GLP-2(1 33), GLP-2(3 33), or glucagon at concentrations of up to 100 nmol/liter. Intraassay variation was less than 6%, and interassay variation was approximately 8 and 12% for 20 and 80 pmol/liter standards, respectively. Plasma samples were assayed for GLP-1 immunoreactivity using RIAs that are specific for each terminus of the GLP-1 molecule: the C-terminal assay measuring the sum of the intact peptide plus the primary metabolite and the N-terminal assay measuring the concentration of intact surviving GLP-1. The C-terminal immunoreactivity of GLP-1 was measured using standards of synthetic GLP-1(7 36) amide and antiserum (28). The assay cross-reacts less than 0.01% with C-terminally truncated fragments and 83% with GLP-1(9 36) amide and has a detection limit less than 1 pmol/liter. N-terminal immunoreactivity was measured using antiserum 93242, which cross-reacts approximately 10% with GLP-1(1 36) amide and less than 0.1% with GLP-1(8 36) amide and GLP-1(9 36) amide. The assay has a detection limit of 2 pmol/liter. For both assays, intraassay and interassay coefficients of variation were less than 6 and 15%, respectively, at 40 pmol/liter. Peptides Synthetic GLP-1(7 36) amide and GIP were purchased from PolyPeptide Laboratories (Wolfenbüttel, Germany). The peptides were dissolved in sterilized water containing 2% human serum albumin [human albumin (Statens Serum Institute, Copenhagen, Denmark), guaranteed to be free of hepatitis-b surface antigen, hepatitis-c virus antibodies, and human immunodeficiency virus antibodies] and subjected to sterile filtration. Appropriate amounts of peptide for each experimental subject were dispensed into glass ampoules and stored frozen under sterile conditions until the day of the experiment. The peptides were more than 97% pure and identical to the natural human peptides by HPLC, mass, and sequence analysis. Calculations Meal test. Areas under the curve (AUCs) for plasma glucose, GLP-1, GIP, and insulin secretion rates were calculated using the trapezoidal method (0 90 min, min). In addition, the incremental AUC for glucose
3 4914 J Clin Endocrinol Metab, August 2005, 90(8): Schou et al. Normal Incretin Secretion and Action in LBW Men TABLE 1. Subject characteristics LBW NBW P Birth weight (g) Weight (kg) NS Height (m) BMI (kg/m 2 ) NS Waist-to-hip ratio Systolic blood pressure NS (mm Hg) Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg) NS Data are means SD. BMI, Body mass index; NS, not significant. more than 5 mmol/liter was calculated. Insulin secretion rates were calculated by deconvolution of the measured C-peptide concentrations by applying population-based individual parameters for C-peptide kinetics as described previously (29, 30). The estimated secretion rates were represented by cubic splines and expressed as picomoles per kilogram of body weight. To explore the relationship between insulin secretion and glucose, GIP, and GLP-1, respectively, linear correlations between these variables (AUCs) and the artificial variable formed as the product of AUC glucose more than 5 mmol/liter [incremental blood glucose (BG incr )] and the GIP or the GLP-1 AUC were done. The rationale for this variable is the concept that GIP and GLP-1 have no effect on insulin secretion when glucose is below basal levels but stimulates insulin secretion primarily at elevated glucose levels. These analyses were performed in the two groups separately and combined. In addition, both univariate and multivariate analysis using the same variables was performed. Finally, changes in insulin secretion rates in response to changes in glucose during the meal expresses the efficacy by which changes in plasma glucose concentrations and gut factors (i.e. GLP-1 and GIP) stimulate insulin secretion. Therefore, the relationship between plasma glucose concentrations and insulin secretion rates during the meal were evaluated by cross-correlation analyses in each patient. The relationship was linear in all subjects, and the slope of the line was used as an index ( -index) of -cell response to glucose (and incretins). Thus, a change in insulin secretion rates induced by a change in plasma glucose by 1 mmol/liter is expressed as picomoles of insulin secreted per minute per kilogram of body weight. Hyperglycemic clamps. For both study days, d 1 (GLP-1) and d 2 (GIP), the first-phase insulin response was defined as AUC(insulin secretion) 0 10 min and the second-phase response as AUC(insulin secretion) min. Glucose infusion rates (milligram per kilogram per minute) were calculated at clamp steady state (t min). AUC for glucose, insulin, C-peptide, and insulin secretion rates (calculated as above) were calculated (t 0 120, t 0 10, and t min). Insulin sensitivity. Insulin sensitivity (Si) was expressed in two different ways: 1) using the homeostasis model assessment (HOMA) model, an estimate of Si derived from fasting plasma glucose and insulin levels (fasting insulin ( U/ml) fasting glucose (mmol/liter))/22.5) (31), and 2) the ratio between glucose infusion rate and mean plasma insulin (Si, t min) on d 2 (32). It has been suggested that GLP-1 may exert an independent extrahepatic effect on peripheral glucose uptake and metabolism (33). Therefore, we did not estimate Si during GLP-1 infusion. Disposition indices. Finally, to express insulin secretion relative to Si, two disposition indices (DIs) were calculated: 1) DI 1 : Si HOMA meal -index, and 2) DI 2 : Si clamp meal -index. Statistical methods Data are presented as means sem unless otherwise indicated. The nonparametrical Mann-Whitney U test was used, unless data were normally distributed (t test). P 0.05 during two-tailed analysis was considered significant. Correlations between the continuous measured or calculated variables were evaluated by linear regression analysis. Results Subject characteristics (Table 1) LBW subjects were, on average, 5 cm shorter and had borderline significantly higher waist-to-hip ratio than NBW controls. Current weight, body mass index, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein, HDL, and triglycerides were similar in the groups. Fifty-four percent of LBW subjects compared with 60% of NBW subjects reported smoking on a regular basis. Meal test (Table 2 and Fig. 1) Figure 1 shows the mean profiles of plasma glucose, insulin, C-peptide, GIP, GLP-1, and insulin secretion. Although the insulin secretion rate closely follows that of glucose concentration and returns to near fasting levels after 90 min, both incretin hormones exhibit prolonged profiles that do not reach fasting levels after 195 min. Fasting plasma glucose, but not insulin or C-peptide concentrations, was significantly higher in LBW compared with NBW subjects. Plasma glucose peaked in both study groups 38 min postprandially, reaching levels of mmol/liter in LBW subjects vs mmol/liter in the control group (P 0.02). In addition, LBW subjects had significantly higher postprandial glucose, insulin, and C-peptide concentrations at all time points, hence also total and incremental AUC glucose and insulin secretion rates, as can be seen in Table 2. The AUCs of GIP and GLP-1 were nearly identical in the two groups. The correlation coefficients between the AUCs of insulin, BG incr, GLP-1, and GIP in the two groups appeared to differ only due to random variation. This indicates that the relationships are similar in the two groups and the groups may therefore be combined. The cross product variable AUC(BG incr ) AUC(GIP) shows the overall correlation with TABLE 2. Comparison of AUC responses Period 0 90 min Total period min LBW (n 24) NBW (n 25) LBW (n 24) NBW (n 25) Insulin secretion (pmol/kg) a , b Glucose concentration (mmol liter 1 min) b , c 1, Glucose concentration 5 mmol/liter (mmol liter 1 min) b c GIP concentration (pmol liter 1 min) 4, , , , GLP-1 concentration (mmol liter 1 min) 1, , , , Data are presented as mean SEM. P P P
4 Schou et al. Normal Incretin Secretion and Action in LBW Men J Clin Endocrinol Metab, August 2005, 90(8): FIG. 1. Mean plasma glucose, insulin, C-peptide, GIP, GLP-1, and insulin secretion rates in NBW (filled circles) and LBW (open circles) during the standard meal test. insulin secretion. Figure 2 illustrates this correlation for the 0 90 min period. The distribution of the points in Fig. 2 indicates that the same regression line can describe the data. This was formally tested by means of analysis of covariance, which showed that the significant difference in insulin secretion between the two groups (Table 2) disappeared when AUC(BG incr ) AUC(GIP) was included as an explanatory variable. In other words, the increased insulin secretion response FIG. 2. The relationship between insulin secretion and the variable formed as the product of AUC for glucose more than 5 mmol/liter and AUC for GIP during the standard meal. (ISR) in the LBW group relative to the control group can be explained by a combined effect of higher glucose and variation in GIP. Although the latter was similar in the two groups, the general correlation with GIP combined with increased glucose may be interpreted as a similar responsiveness or sensitivity of the -cell to glucose and GIP in the two groups. A similar result was seen when the corresponding data for the min period were analyzed (results not shown). Finally, it should be briefly mentioned that multivariate correlation analysis using the data from Table 2 shows that the pair of explanatory variables AUC(BG) and AUC(GIP) gave a slightly better description of the variation in insulin secretion (for both periods) than the univariate correlation with AUC(BG incr ) AUC(GIP). Both AUC(BG) and AUC(GIP) contributed significantly, whereas none of the other variables improved the description (Table 3. The two variables were also capable of explaining the group difference in insulin secretion. Whether it is the single combined variable AUC(BG incr ) AUC(GIP) or the pair AUC(BG) and AUC(GIP) that gives the most correct prediction of insulin secretion cannot be settled by the statistical analysis. Furthermore, -cell responsiveness to changes in glucose ( -index), expressed as the slope of the lines expressing the relationship between the calculated ISR and the concomitant blood glucose concentrations, was not different between the groups [NBW, vs. LBW, (pmol insulin) kg 1 min 1 (mmol glucose) 1 liter; P 0.68]. According to the HOMA index, LBW subjects tended to be insulin resistant ( vs ; P 0.14), and
5 4916 J Clin Endocrinol Metab, August 2005, 90(8): Schou et al. Normal Incretin Secretion and Action in LBW Men TABLE 3. Correlation coefficients between insulin secretion and AUC glucose, GIP, and GLP-1 Explanatory AUC variable Period 0 90 min Total period min LBW (n 24) NBW (n 25) All (n 49) LBW (n 24) NBW (n 25) All (n 49) Glucose b 0.44 a c GIP 0.48 a a 0.48 a b GLP BG incr b 0.44 a c BG incr GIP 0.46 a 0.47 a 0.53 c 0.50 a 0.45 a 0.57 c BG incr GLP a Data are presented as mean SEM. a P b P c P consequently, the disposition index DI 1 tended to be lower in LBW subjects [ vs (pmol insulin) 2 (mmol glucose) 2 kg 1 min 1 liter 1 ; P 0.11]. Hyperglycemic clamps with infusion of GLP-1 and GIP (Table 4 and Fig. 3) Plasma glucose, insulin, and C-peptide concentrations, as well as insulin secretion rates, were similar in the two groups, regardless of study day (Fig. 3). Consequently, neither firstphase nor second-phase insulin responses differed between groups (data not shown). Note that, although the GLP-1- and GIP-induced first-phase insulin responses were of significant difference, this difference in percentage is minimal compared with the difference in second-phase insulin response (t min), being approximately 50% decreased during GIP compared with the GLP- 1 infusion (Table 5). The amount of glucose infused (expressed as AUC glucose 0 120) to maintain plasma glucose at 7 mmol/liter during GLP-1 coinfusion was significantly lower in the LBW subjects throughout the clamp (NBW, ; LBW, mg/kg min; P 0.05) and mean glucose infusion during steady-state (t min) (NBW, vs. LBW, mg/kg min; P 0.04), which is suggestive of insulin resistance. No significant difference was observed with GIPinfusion (AUC glucose 0 120: NBW, vs. LBW, mg/kg min). Nevertheless, when Si was calculated as the glucose infusion rate/insulin (t min) during GIP infusion, LBW subjects tended to dispose less glucose compared with NBW [NBW, vs. LBW, (milligrams of glucose per kilogram per millimolar insulin); P 0.11]. Disposition index, DI 2 (based on glucose infusion rates during GIP coinfusion), was insignificantly lower in LBW ( vs U; P 0.18). Discussion This study has revealed the following findings: young healthy LBW men have 1) normal secretion of both GLP-1 and GIP in response to a standard breakfast meal, 2) normal action of GLP-1 and GIP in terms of -cell stimulation when infused iv during a 7 mm hyperglycemic clamp, and 3) similar -cell responsiveness to changes in glucose during a standard meal test but in the face of significantly elevated plasma glucose concentrations and insulin resistance, suggesting the presence of a subtle -cell defect in LBW subjects. Although defective secretion and action of GLP-1 and GIP were shown previously to contribute in different ways to the disturbed glucose homeostasis in type 2 diabetic patients (11 15, 23, 34), the present very detailed study did not provide evidence for a primary involvement of the gut incretin hormones GLP-1 and GIP in the development of elevated fasting and postprandial plasma glucose concentrations in young, presumably prediabetic men with LBW. Nyholm et al. (35) demonstrated in healthy offspring of type 2 diabetic patients a normal GLP-1 secretion but an increased GIP concentration after a meal. Previously, data from our group has indicated a nongenetic origin of the defective GLP-1 secretion in monozygotic twins discordant for type 2 diabetes (36). Moreover, studies of several diabetic phenotypes (latent autoimmune diabetes of adults, maturity-onset diabetes of the young type 3, chronic pancreatitis, newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes mellitus, and thin and obese T2DM patients) have lead us to conclude that GIP was unable to generate a significant late-phase insulin response in any of those groups (34). Therefore, we propose that impaired secretion and action of gut incretin hormones develop at a later time point, potentially as a consequence of hyperglycemia and/or hyperlipidemia in prediabetic and diabetic states, rather than being a primary abnormality of glucose homeostasis. We TABLE 4. Data obtained during hyperinsulinemic clamp GLP-1 GIP NBW (n 25) LBW (n 24) P NBW (n 25) LBW (n 24) P AUC Glu. total t:0 120 (mg/kg min) NS Infusion rate t: (mg/kg min) NS AUC Ins. total t:0 120 (pmol/min) 42,145 6,362 42,691 5,844 NS 19,094 1,390 22,771 2,286 NS AUC ins. incr t:0 120 (pmol/min) 29,944 6,573 30,691 5,830 NS 9,124 1,988 11,512 1,248 NS AUC ins. t:0 10 (pmol/min) 2, , NS 3, , NS Data are means SEM. NS, Not significant; Glu., glucose; ins., insulin.
6 Schou et al. Normal Incretin Secretion and Action in LBW Men J Clin Endocrinol Metab, August 2005, 90(8): FIG. 3. Plasma glucose (1A, 1B), glucose infusion rates (2A, 2B), plasma insulin (3A, 3B), plasma C-peptide (4A, 4B), and insulin secretion rates (5A, 5B) during the hyperglycemic clamps in men with NBW (black lines) and LBW (stippled lines). Figures labeled A illustrate the results during GLP-1 infusion, and figures labeled B illustrate the results during GIP infusion.
7 4918 J Clin Endocrinol Metab, August 2005, 90(8): Schou et al. Normal Incretin Secretion and Action in LBW Men TABLE 5. First and second phase insulin secretion responses to infusion of GIP and GLP-1 First phase ( 2 to 10 min) (pmol/kg) Second phase (10 to 120 min) (pmol/kg) Infusion NBW (n 25) LBW (n 24) GLP b a GIP GLP c c GIP Data are means SEM. No statistically significant differences between the two groups for any of the four responses. First and second phase responses are significantly higher (P 0.001) in both groups with GLP-1 than GIP. a P b P c P measured the total GLP-1, which is the sum of the biologically active intact molecule GLP-1(7 36) amide and the primary inactive metabolite GLP-1(9 36) amide. The use of this assay rather than an NH-terminal assay measuring only the intact, biologically active GLP-1 is essential to estimate the rate of secretion of GLP-1 because the hormone is metabolized intravascularly and extremely rapidly (with an apparent half-life of 1 15 min and a clearance rate exceeding cardiac output (37). Thus, it is the sum of the concentrations of the primary metabolite and the intact hormone that reflects the secretory rate of GLP-1. The finding of identical plasma GLP-1 and GIP levels during the study days with iv GLP-1 and GIP infusions does not indicate different metabolism of the two peptides in the LBW and control subjects in this study. Another potential source of error could be different gastric emptying rates in the two study groups, which may influence the incretin hormone secretion in a differential manner (38). However, given that the plasma GIP and GLP-1 levels and profiles after the meals were virtually identical in LBW subjects and controls, we do not believe that our results are influenced by differences in gastric emptying. To obtain a well-defined separation and accurate quantification of first- and second-phase insulin responses, we used deconvolution to estimate insulin secretion. Furthermore, to ensure action of the glucose-dependent incretin hormones on insulin secretion, we used hyperglycemic clamps within the physiological glucose range and demonstrated normal action of both GLP-1 and GIP to enhance insulin secretion in the LBW men. Nevertheless, the effect of the two incretin hormones GLP-1 vs. GIP on first- and second-phase insulin responses differed in an interesting manner. Thus, although first-phase responses were near similar during GLP-1 and GIP infusions, second-phase insulin response during GIP infusion was only half of that observed during GLP-1 infusion in both study groups. Whereas first-phase insulin secretion is believed to be primarily determined by the rate of exocytosis of previously docked insulin granula, the second-phase response is believed to rely on several factors, including the rate of de novo insulin synthesis, insulin granula translocation, and membrane fusion (39, 40). Experimental reduction of -cell mass decreases both first- and second-phase insulin secretion (41). One interpretation of the present data may be that GIP primarily amplifies the initial part of insulin secretion by promoting the exocytosis of previously docked insulin granulas, whereas GLP-1 in addition to its enhancing effect on first-phase insulin secretion also stimulates second-phase insulin secretion through the mechanisms outlined above. This is a novel observation contributing to our understanding of the mode of action of the gut incretin hormones in nondiabetic subjects. The LBW subjects had significantly higher fasting glucose as well as elevated plasma glucose, insulin, and C-peptide concentrations during the meal tests. Although within the normal nondiabetic range, the magnitude of the elevation of the fasting plasma glucose concentration in the LBW subjects in this study was virtually identical to that reported in our previous study (25). However, -cell responsiveness to glucose (and incretin hormones) under these physiological conditions (mixed meal test) was normal, which is suggestive of a normal -cell sensitivity to glucose in the absolute sense in LBW subjects at early stages. Nevertheless, insulin secretion was not quite sufficient to overcome the degree of insulin resistance, evident by mild hyperglycemia and nonsignificantly lower disposition indices in the LBW group. Relative -cell failure, despite normal GLP-1 and GIP secretion and action, was also found in our previous study (25), and this subtle defect is likely to be functional rather than due to a decrease in -cell mass, because the first- and second-phase insulin responses were identical during the hyperglycemic clamps. It should be noted that insulin action in the present study, in contrast to our previous study, were assessed using indirect measures such as the HOMA index and glucose infusion during GIP clamps. This may explain the lack of a significant reduction of the disposition index in the LBW subjects in this study. The slightly higher waist-to-hip ratios in the present LBW cohort may explain why the LBW subjects tented to be insulin resistant compared with the control subjects. We have demonstrated previously blunted insulinstimulated forearm glucose uptake (42), impaired insulinstimulated glycolysis, but normal whole-body glucose disposal in 19-yr-old men with LBW (25) who had been selected according to the same criteria as in the present study. In conclusion, the consistent finding of elevated fasting and postprandial glucose levels in young healthy men with LBW support the idea of an important role for the intrauterine environment for the development of type 2 diabetes. We have shown that young LBW men have normal -cell responsiveness to iv glucose and the two major gut incretin hormones GLP-1 and GIP, as well as normal incretin hormone secretion. Nevertheless, insulin secretion was relatively insufficient to overcome a mild insulin resistance in the LBW subjects, resulting in significantly elevated glucose concentrations during meal tests. It remains to be determined whether this is due to an intrinsic functional abnormality of the -cell or whether it may be due to a yet unidentified abnormal signal to the -cell. Acknowledgments We thank Susanne Reimer and Marianne Modest for skillful assistance during meal tests and clamps on Hvidovre Hospital. Also, sincere thanks to Lone Bagger at Panum University for skillful assistance on analyzing GLP-1 and GIP samples.
8 Schou et al. Normal Incretin Secretion and Action in LBW Men J Clin Endocrinol Metab, August 2005, 90(8): Received February 22, Accepted May 6, Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Jakob Hagen Schou or Kasper Pilgaard, Steno Diabetes Center, Niels Steensens Vej 2, 2820 Gentofte, Denmark. oranje@tiscali.dk or kasperpilgaard@hotmail.com. This work was supported by grants from the Danish Diabetes Association. References 1. Hales CN, Barker DJ, Clark PM, Cox LJ, Fall C, Osmond C, Winter PD 1991 Fetal and infant growth and impaired glucose tolerance at age 64. BMJ 303: Hales CN, Barker DJ 2001 The thrifty phenotype hypothesis. Br Med Bull 60: Veening MA, Van Weissenbruch MM, Delemarre-Van De Waal HA 2002 Glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity, and insulin secretion in children born small for gestational age. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87: Jaquet D, Gaboriau A, Czernichow P, Levy-Marchal C 2000 Insulin resistance early in adulthood in subjects born with intrauterine growth retardation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85: Whincup PH, Cook DG, Adshead F, Taylor SJ, Walker M, Papacosta O, Alberti KG 1997 Childhood size is more strongly related than size at birth to glucose and insulin levels in year-old children. Diabetologia 40: Ozanne SE, Hales CN 1999 The long-term consequences of intra-uterine protein malnutrition for glucose metabolism. Proc Nutr Soc 58: Phillips DI, Hirst S, Clark PM, Hales CN, Osmond C 1994 Fetal growth and insulin secretion in adult life. Diabetologia 37: Ravelli AC, van der Meulen JH, Michels RP, Osmond C, Barker DJ, Hales CN, Bleker OP 1998 Glucose tolerance in adults after prenatal exposure to famine. Lancet 351: Bavdekar A, Yajnik CS, Fall CH, Babat S, Pandit AN, Deshpande V, Bhave S, Kellingray SD, Joglekar C 1999 Insulin resistance syndrome in 8-year-old Indian children: small at birth, big at 8 years, or both? Diabetes 48: Yajnik CS, Fall CH, Vaidya U, Pandit AN, Bavdekar A, Bhat DS, Osmond C, Hales CN, Barker DJ 1995 Fetal growth and glucose and insulin metabolism in four-year-old Indian children. Diabet Med 12: Nauck M, Stockmann F, Ebert R, Creutzfeldt W 1986 Reduced incretin effect in type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes. Diabetologia 29: Vilsboll T, Krarup T, Deacon CF, Madsbad S, Holst JJ 2001 Reduced postprandial concentrations of intact biologically active glucagon-like peptide 1 in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes 50: Toft-Nielsen MB, Damholt MB, Madsbad S, Hilsted LM, Hughes TE, Michelsen BK, Holst JJ 2001 Determinants of the impaired secretion of glucagonlike peptide-1 in type 2 diabetic patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86: Scrocchi LA, Brown TJ, MaClusky N, Brubaker PL, Auerbach AB, Joyner AL, Drucker DJ 1996 Glucose intolerance but normal satiety in mice with a null mutation in the glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor gene. Nat Med 2: Miyawaki K, Yamada Y, Yano H, Niwa H, Ban N, Ihara Y, Kubota A, Fujimoto S, Kajikawa M, Kuroe A, Tsuda K, Hashimoto H, Yamashita T, Jomori T, Tashiro F, Miyazaki J, Seino Y 1999 Glucose intolerance caused by a defect in the entero-insular axis: a study in gastric inhibitory polypeptide receptor knockout mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96: Hvidberg A, Nielsen MT, Hilsted J, Orskov C, Holst JJ 1994 Effect of glucagon-like peptide-1 (proglucagon amide) on hepatic glucose production in healthy man. Metabolism 43: Flint A, Raben A, Astrup A, Holst JJ 1998 Glucagon-like peptide 1 promotes satiety and suppresses energy intake in humans. J Clin Invest 101: Buteau J, Foisy S, Rhodes CJ, Carpenter L, Biden TJ, Prentki M 2001 Protein kinase Czeta activation mediates glucagon-like peptide-1-induced pancreatic -cell proliferation. Diabetes 50: Buteau J, Foisy S, Joly E, Prentki M 2003 Glucagon-like peptide 1 induces pancreatic -cell proliferation via transactivation of the epidermal growth factor receptor. Diabetes 52: Zhou J, Wang X, Pineyro MA, Egan JM 1999 Glucagon-like peptide 1 and exendin-4 convert pancreatic AR42J cells into glucagon- and insulin-producing cells. Diabetes 48: Zhou J, Pineyro MA, Wang X, Doyle ME, Egan JM 2002 Exendin-4 differentiation of a human pancreatic duct cell line into endocrine cells: involvement of PDX-1 and HNF3 transcription factors. J Cell Physiol 192: Farilla L, Hui H, Bertolotto C, Kang E, Bulotta A, Di Mario U, Perfetti R 2002 Glucagon-like peptide-1 promotes islet cell growth and inhibits apoptosis in Zucker diabetic rats. Endocrinology 143: Morgan LM 1998 The role of gastrointestinal hormones in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism and homeostasis: effects of gastric inhibitory polypeptide and glucagon-like peptide-1. Biochem Soc Trans 26: Nauck MA, Homberger E, Siegel EG, Allen RC, Eaton RP, Ebert R, Creutzfeldt W 1986 Incretin effects of increasing glucose loads in man calculated from venous insulin and C-peptide responses. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 63: Jensen CB, Storgaard H, Dela F, Holst JJ, Madsbad S, Vaag AA 2002 Early differential defects of insulin secretion and action in 19-year-old Caucasian men who had low birth weight. Diabetes 51: Krarup T, Madsbad S, Moody AJ, Regeur L, Faber OK, Holst JJ, Sestoft C 1983 Diminished immunoreactive gastric inhibitory polypeptide response to a meal in newly diagnosed type I (insulin-dependent) diabetics. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 56: Krarup T, Holst JJ 1984 The heterogeneity of gastric inhibitory polypeptide in porcine and human gastrointestinal mucosa evaluated with five different antisera. Regul Pept 9: Orskov C, Rabenhoj L, Wettergren A, Kofod H, Holst JJ 1994 Tissue and plasma concentrations of amidated and glycine-extended glucagon-like peptide I in humans. Diabetes 43: Hovorka R, Koukkou E, Southerden D, Powrie JK, Young MA 1998 Measuring pre-hepatic insulin secretion using a population model of C-peptide kinetics: accuracy and required sampling schedule. Diabetologia 41: Kjems LL, Volund A, Madsbad S 2001 Quantification of -cell function during IVGTT in Type II and non-diabetic subjects: assessment of insulin secretion by mathematical methods. Diabetologia 44: Wallace TM, Levy JC, Matthews DR 2004 Use and abuse of HOMA modeling. Diabetes Care 27: Mitrakou A, Vuorinen-Markkola H, Raptis G, Toft I, Mokan M, Strumph P, Pimenta W, Veneman T, Jenssen T 1992 Simultaneous assessment of insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity using a hyperglycemia clamp. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 75: Sandhu H, Wiesenthal SR, MacDonald PE, McCall RH, Tchipashvili V, Rashid S, Satkunarajah M, Irwin DM, Shi ZQ, Brubaker PL, Wheeler MB, Vranic M, Efendic S, Gracca A 1999 Glucagon-like peptide 1 increases insulin sensitivity in depancreatized dogs. Diabetes 48: Vilsboll T, Knop FK, Krarup T, Johansen A, Madsbad S, Larsen S, Hansen T, Pedersen O, Holst JJ 2003 The pathophysiology of diabetes involves a defective amplification of the late-phase insulin response to glucose by glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide-regardless of etiology and phenotype. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88: Nyholm B, Walker M, Gravholt CH, Shearing PA, Sturis J, Alberti KG, Holst JJ, Schmitz O 1999 Twenty-four-hour insulin secretion rates, circulating concentrations of fuel substrates and gut incretin hormones in healthy offspring of type II (non-insulin-dependent) diabetic parents: evidence of several aberrations. Diabetologia 42: Vaag AA, Holst JJ, Volund A, Beck-Nielsen HB 1996 Gut incretin hormones in identical twins discordant for non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) evidence for decreased glucagon-like peptide 1 secretion during oral glucose ingestion in NIDDM twins. Eur J Endocrinol 135: Deacon CF, Johnsen AH, Holst JJ 1995 Degradation of glucagon-like peptide-1 by human plasma in vitro yields an N-terminally truncated peptide that is a major endogenous metabolite in vivo. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80: Qualmann C, Nauck MA, Holst JJ, Orskov C, Creutzfeldt W 1995 Glucagonlike peptide 1 (7 36 amide) secretion in response to luminal sucrose from the upper and lower gut. A study using -glucosidase inhibition (acarbose). Scand J Gastroenterol 30: Meneilly GS, Veldhuis JD, Elahi D 1999 Disruption of the pulsatile and entropic modes of insulin release during an unvarying glucose stimulus in elderly individuals. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84: Halban PA 1982 Differential rates of release of newly synthesized and of stored insulin from pancreatic islets. Endocrinology 110: Draznin B, Steinberg JP, Goodman M, Leitner JW, Sussman KE 1985 Control of secretion vesicle margination and lysis by glucose, IBMX, and glyburide. Am J Physiol 248:E375 E Hermann TS, Rask-Madsen C, Ihlemann N, Dominguez H, Jensen CB, Storgaard H, Vaag AA, Kober L, Torp-Pedersen C 2003 Normal insulinstimulated endothelial function and impaired insulin-stimulated muscle glucose uptake in young adults with low birth weight. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88: JCEM is published monthly by The Endocrine Society ( the foremost professional society serving the endocrine community.
Defective amplification of the late phase insulin response to glucose by GIP in obese Type II diabetic patients
Diabetologia (2002) 45:1111 1119 DOI 10.1007/s00125-002-0878-6 Defective amplification of the late phase insulin response to glucose by GIP in obese Type II diabetic patients T. Vilsbøll 1, 2, T. Krarup
More informationIntact Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Levels are not Decreased in Japanese Patients with Type 2 Diabetes
Or i g i n a l Advance Publication Intact Glucagon-like Peptide-1 Levels are not Decreased in Japanese Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Soushou Lee*, Daisuke Yabe**, Kyoko Nohtomi*, Michiya Takada*, Ryou
More informationThe enteroinsular axis in the pathogenesis of prediabetes and diabetes in humans
The enteroinsular axis in the pathogenesis of prediabetes and diabetes in humans Young Min Cho, MD, PhD Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism Seoul National University College of Medicine Plasma glucose
More informationReduction of insulinotropic properties of GLP-1 and GIP after glucocorticoid-induced insulin resistance
Diabetologia (5) 5:9 9 DOI.7/s5-5-5-y ARTICLE Reduction of insulinotropic properties of GLP- and GIP after glucocorticoid-induced insulin resistance Marie Eriksen & David H. Jensen & Siri Tribler & Jens
More informationThe Mediterranean Diet: HOW and WHY It Works So Well for T2DM
The Mediterranean Diet: HOW and WHY It Works So Well for T2DM Susan L. Barlow, RD, CDE. Objectives 1. Discuss the effects of meal size on GLP-1 concentrations. 2. Compare and contrast the specific effects
More informationARTICLE. D. H. Jensen & K. Aaboe & J. E. Henriksen & A. Vølund & J. J. Holst & S. Madsbad & T. Krarup
Diabetologia () :1 11 DOI.7/s--9-7 ARTICLE Steroid-induced insulin resistance and impaired glucose tolerance are both associated with a progressive decline of incretin effect in first-degree relatives
More informationCharacterization of GLP-1 Effects on -Cell Function After Meal Ingestion in Humans
Emerging Treatments and Technologies O R I G I N A L A R T I C L E Characterization of GLP-1 Effects on -Cell Function After Meal Ingestion in Humans BO AHRÉN, MD, PHD 1 JENS J. HOLST, MD, PHD 2 ANDREA
More informationElectronic Supplementary Material to the article entitled Altered pattern of the
Electronic Supplementary Material to the article entitled Altered pattern of the incretin effect as assessed by modelling in individuals with glucose tolerance ranging from normal to diabetic Integrated
More informationIncreased postprandial responses of GLP-1 and GIP in patients with. chronic pancreatitis and steatorrhea following pancreatic enzyme
Page 1 of 33 Articles in PresS. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab (September 5, 2006). doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00059.2006 Increased insulin after pancreatic enzyme substitution 1 Increased postprandial responses
More informationThe phenomenon that oral glucose elicits a higher. Original Article Reduced Incretin Effect in Type 2 Diabetes
Original Article Reduced Incretin Effect in Type 2 Diabetes Cause or Consequence of the Diabetic State? Filip K. Knop, 1,2 Tina Vilsbøll, 1 Patricia V. Højberg, 1 Steen Larsen, 3 Sten Madsbad, 4 Aage Vølund,
More informationImpaired Incretin Response After a Mixed Meal Is Associated With Insulin Resistance in Nondiabetic Men
Pathophysiology/Complications O R I G I N A L A R T I C L E Impaired Incretin Response After a Mixed Meal Is Associated With Insulin Resistance in Nondiabetic Men EVA RASK, MD 1 TOMMY OLSSON, MD, PHD 1
More informationEffect of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 on - and -Cell Function in C-Peptide-Negative Type 1 Diabetic Patients
ORIGINAL ARTICLE Endocrine Research Brief Report Effect of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 on - and -Cell Function in C-Peptide-Negative Type 1 Diabetic Patients Urd Kielgast, Meena Asmar, Sten Madsbad, and Jens
More informationARTICLE. P. V. Højberg & T. Vilsbøll & R. Rabøl & F. K. Knop & M. Bache & T. Krarup & J. J. Holst & S. Madsbad
Diabetologia (29) 52:199 27 DOI 1.17/s125-8-1195-5 ARTICLE Four weeks of near-normalisation of blood glucose improves the insulin response to glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucose-dependent insulinotropic
More informationNear normalisation of blood glucose improves the potentiating effect of GLP-1 on glucose-induced insulin secretion in patients with type 2 diabetes
Diabetologia (28) 1:632 64 DOI 1.17/s1-8-943-x ARTICLE Near normalisation of blood glucose improves the potentiating effect of GLP-1 on glucose-induced insulin secretion in patients with type 2 diabetes
More informationNIH Public Access Author Manuscript Diabetologia. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2014 February 01.
NIH Public Access Author Manuscript Published in final edited form as: Diabetologia. 2013 February ; 56(2): 231 233. doi:10.1007/s00125-012-2788-6. Lipotoxicity impairs incretin signalling V. Poitout 1,2
More informationAlternative insulin delivery systems: how demanding should the patient be?
Diabetologia (1997) 4: S97 S11 Springer-Verlag 1997 Alternative insulin delivery systems: how demanding should the patient be? K.S. Polonsky, M. M. Byrne, J. Sturis Department of Medicine, The University
More informationRole of incretins in the treatment of type 2 diabetes
Role of incretins in the treatment of type 2 diabetes Jens Juul Holst Department of Medical Physiology Panum Institute University of Copenhagen Denmark Diabetes & Obesity Spanish Society of Internal Medicine
More informationEXENDIN-4 IS A 39-amino acid reptilian peptide that
0021-972X/04/$15.00/0 The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 89(7):3469 3473 Printed in U.S.A. Copyright 2004 by The Endocrine Society doi: 10.1210/jc.2003-032001 Exendin-4 Normalized Postcibal
More informationPractical Strategies for the Clinical Use of Incretin Mimetics CME/CE. CME/CE Released: 09/15/2009; Valid for credit through 09/15/2010
Practical Strategies for the Clinical Use of Incretin Mimetics CME/CE Robert R. Henry, MD Authors and Disclosures CME/CE Released: 09/15/2009; Valid for credit through 09/15/2010 Introduction Type 2 diabetes
More information28 Regulation of Fasting and Post-
28 Regulation of Fasting and Post- Prandial Glucose Metabolism Keywords: Type 2 Diabetes, endogenous glucose production, splanchnic glucose uptake, gluconeo-genesis, glycogenolysis, glucose effectiveness.
More informationAn integrated glucose homeostasis model of glucose, insulin, C-peptide, GLP-1, GIP and glucagon in healthy subjects and patients with type 2 diabetes
An integrated glucose homeostasis model of glucose, insulin, C-peptide, GLP-1, GIP and glucagon in healthy subjects and patients with type 2 diabetes Oskar Alskär, Jonatan Bagger, Rikke Røge, Kanji Komatsu,
More informationAbnormalities in the secretion and insulinotropic
ORIGINAL ARTICLE GIP Does Not Potentiate the Antidiabetic Effects of GLP-1 in Hyperglycemic Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Nikolaos Mentis, 1 Irfan Vardarli, 1 Lars D. Köthe, 1 Jens J. Holst, 2 Carolyn
More informationIncretin Effect and Glucagon Responses to Oral and Intravenous Glucose in Patients With Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young Type 2 and Type 3
2838 Diabetes Volume 63, August 2014 Signe H. Østoft, 1,2,3 Jonatan I. Bagger, 1,2,3 Torben Hansen, 3,4 Oluf Pedersen, 3 Jens J. Holst, 2,3 Filip K. Knop, 1,2,3 and Tina Vilsbøll 1 Incretin Effect and
More informationGlucagon-like peptide 1(GLP-1)
Emerging Treatments and Technologies O R I G I N A L A R T I C L E Differential Effects of Acute and Extended Infusions of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 on First- and Second-Phase Insulin Secretion in Diabetic
More informationManagement of Type 2 Diabetes
Management of Type 2 Diabetes Pathophysiology Insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency/ defective secretion Not immune mediated No evidence of β cell destruction Increased risk with age, obesity
More informationDiscussion & Conclusion
Discussion & Conclusion 7. Discussion DPP-4 inhibitors augment the effects of incretin hormones by prolonging their half-life and represent a new therapeutic approach for the treatment of type 2 diabetes
More informationFetal growth restriction is more likely to occur in
Original Article The Intrauterine Environment as Reflected by Birth Size and Twin and Zygosity Status Influences Insulin Action and Intracellular Glucose Metabolism in an Age- or Time-Dependent Manner
More informationPathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes
9/23/215 Multiple, Complex Pathophysiological Abnmalities in T2DM incretin effect gut carbohydrate delivery & absption pancreatic insulin secretion pancreatic glucagon secretion HYPERGLYCEMIA? Pathogenesis
More informationla prise en charge du diabète de
N21 XIII Congrès National de Diabétologie, 29 mai 2011, Alger Intérêt et place des Anti DPP4 dans la prise en charge du diabète de type 2 Nicolas PAQUOT, MD, PhD CHU Sart-Tilman, Université de Liège Belgique
More informationScope. History. History. Incretins. Incretin-based Therapy and DPP-4 Inhibitors
Plasma Glucose (mg/dl) Plasma Insulin (pmol/l) Incretin-based Therapy and Inhibitors Scope Mechanism of action ผศ.ดร.นพ.ว ระเดช พ ศประเสร ฐ สาขาว ชาโภชนว ทยาคล น ก ภาคว ชาอาย รศาสตร คณะแพทยศาสตร มหาว ทยาล
More informationDifference in glucagon-like peptide-1 concentrations between C-peptide negative type 1 diabetes mellitus patients and healthy controls
Original Article Annals of Clinical Biochemistry 2015, Vol. 52(2) 220 225! The Author(s) 2014 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.co.uk/journalspermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0004563214544709 acb.sagepub.com
More informationEffect of macronutrients and mixed meals on incretin hormone secretion and islet cell function
Effect of macronutrients and mixed meals on incretin hormone secretion and islet cell function Background. Following meal ingestion, several hormones are released from the gastrointestinal tract. Some
More informationTreating Type 2 Diabetes with Bariatric Surgery. Goal of Treating T2DM. Remission of T2DM with Bariatric
Treating Type 2 Diabetes with Bariatric Surgery Number (in Millions) of Persons with Diagnosed Diabetes, United States, 198 25 The number of Americans with diabetes increased from 5.6 to 15.8 million Guilherme
More informationBARIATRIC SURGERY AND TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS
BARIATRIC SURGERY AND TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS George Vl Valsamakis European Scope Fellow Obesity Visiting iti Associate Prof Warwick Medical School Diabetes is an increasing healthcare epidemic throughout
More informationRelation of Birth Weight to Fasting Insulin, Insulin Resistance, and Body Size in Adolescence
Pathophysiology/Complications O R I G I N A L A R T I C L E Relation of Birth Weight to Fasting Insulin, Insulin Resistance, and Body Size in Adolescence MAUREEN A. MURTAUGH, PHD 1 DAVID R. JACOBS JR.,
More informationMy Journey in Endocrinology. Samuel Cataland M.D
My Journey in Endocrinology Samuel Cataland M.D. 1968-2015 Drs Berson M.D. Yalow phd Insulin Radioimmunoassay Nobel Prize Physiology or Medicine 1977 Rosalyn Yalow: Radioimmunoassay Technology Andrew Schally
More informationHyperglycaemia increases dipeptidyl peptidase IV activity in diabetes mellitus
Diabetologia (2005) 48: 1168 1172 DOI 10.1007/s00125-005-1749-8 ARTICLE E. Mannucci. L. Pala. S. Ciani. G. Bardini. A. Pezzatini. I. Sposato. F. Cremasco. A. Ognibene. C. M. Rotella Hyperglycaemia increases
More informationFactors Related to Blood Intact Incretin Levels in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Original Article Pathophysiology Diabetes Metab J Published online Feb 20, 2019 https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2018.0105 pissn 2233-6079 eissn 2233-6087 DIABETES & METABOLISM JOURNAL Factors Related to Blood
More informationSecretion of incretin hormones and the insulinotropic effect of gastric inhibitory polypeptide in women with a history of gestational diabetes
Diabetologia (2005) 48: 1872 1881 DOI 10.1007/s00125-005-1863-7 ARTICLE J. J. Meier. B. Gallwitz. M. Askenas. K. Vollmer. C. F. Deacon. J. J. Holst. W. E. Schmidt. M. A. Nauck Secretion of incretin hormones
More informationInitially more rapid small intestinal glucose delivery increases plasma. insulin, GIP and GLP-1, but does not improve overall glycemia in
Articles in PresS. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab (May 10, 2005). doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00099.2005 E-00099-2005.R1 Final accepted version 1 Initially more rapid small intestinal glucose delivery increases
More informationBlood glucose concentrations in healthy humans
ORIGINAL ARTICLE Effect of Glycemia on Plasma Incretins and the Incretin Effect During Oral Glucose Tolerance Test Marzieh Salehi, 1 Benedict Aulinger, 1 and David A. D Alessio 1,2 The incretin effect,
More informationSredišnja medicinska knjižnica
Središnja medicinska knjižnica Zibar K., Knežević Ćuća J., Blaslov K., Bulum T., Smirčić-Duvnjak L. (2015) Difference in glucagon-like peptide-1 concentrations between C-peptide negative type 1 diabetes
More informationTHE TWO GLUCAGON-LIKE peptides, GLP-1 and
0021-972X/00/$03.00/0 Vol. 85, No. 8 The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism Printed in U.S.A. Copyright 2000 by The Endocrine Society In Vivo and in Vitro Degradation of Glucagon-Like Peptide-2
More informationSELECTED ABSTRACTS AND POSTER PRESENTATIONS
SELECTED ABSTRACTS AND POSTER PRESENTATIONS The following summaries are based on abstracts and posters presented at the American Diabetes Association s 65th Annual Scientific Sessions held in San Diego,
More informationDiabetes: Definition Pathophysiology Treatment Goals. By Scott Magee, MD, FACE
Diabetes: Definition Pathophysiology Treatment Goals By Scott Magee, MD, FACE Disclosures No disclosures to report Definition of Diabetes Mellitus Diabetes Mellitus comprises a group of disorders characterized
More informationInsulin release, insulin sensitivity, and glucose intolerance (early diabetes/pathogenesis)
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 77, No. 12, pp. 7425-7429, December 1980 Medical Sciences nsulin release, insulin sensitivity, and glucose intolerance (early diabetes/pathogenesis) SUAD EFENDt, ALEXANDRE
More informationOral glutamine increases circulating glucagon-like peptide 1, glucagon, and insulin concentrations in lean, obese, and type 2 diabetic subjects 1 4
Oral glutamine increases circulating glucagon-like peptide 1, glucagon, and insulin concentrations in lean, obese, and type 2 diabetic subjects 1 4 Jerry R Greenfield, I Sadaf Farooqi, Julia M Keogh, Elana
More informationDiabetes Care Publish Ahead of Print, published online May 18, 2011
Clinical Care/Education/Nutrition/Psychosocial Research O R I G I N A L A R T I C L E Four Weeks of Treatment With Liraglutide Reduces Insulin Dose Without Loss of Glycemic Control in Type 1 Diabetic Patients
More informationIncretin Hormones and Insulin Responses During OGTT in Newly Diagnosed T2DM Patients
Bangladesh Med Res Counc Bull 2017; 43: 31-36 Incretin Hormones and Insulin Responses During OGTT in Newly Diagnosed T2DM Patients Jhuma KA 1, Giasuddin ASM 2, Haq AMM 1, Huque MH 1 1 Medical College for
More informationFetal Programming and the Leningrad Siege Study
ARTICLES Fetal Programming and the Leningrad Siege Study Sara A. Stanner 1 and John S.Yudkin 2 1 British Nutrition Foundation, London 2 International Health and Medical Education Centre, University College
More informationMegan Lawless. Journal Club. January 20 th, 2011
Megan Lawless Journal Club January 20 th, 2011 Gut-expressed gustducin and taste receptors regulate secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences September 2007 Abstract
More information22 Emerging Therapies for
22 Emerging Therapies for Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes Siddharth N Shah Abstract: The prevalence of Diabetes is progressively increasing world-wide and the growth of the disease in our country is phenomenal.
More informationThe oral meal or oral glucose tolerance test. Original Article Two-Hour Seven-Sample Oral Glucose Tolerance Test and Meal Protocol
Original Article Two-Hour Seven-Sample Oral Glucose Tolerance Test and Meal Protocol Minimal Model Assessment of -Cell Responsivity and Insulin Sensitivity in Nondiabetic Individuals Chiara Dalla Man,
More informationENERGY FROM INGESTED NUTREINTS MAY BE USED IMMEDIATELY OR STORED
QUIZ/TEST REVIEW NOTES SECTION 1 SHORT TERM METABOLISM [METABOLISM] Learning Objectives: Identify primary energy stores of the body Differentiate the metabolic processes of the fed and fasted states Explain
More informationTargeting simultaneously GLP-1, GIP and glucagon receptors : a new paradigm for treating obesity and diabetes
SHORT COMMENT FOR NATURE REVIEWS ENDOCRINOLOGY Targeting simultaneously GLP-1, GIP and glucagon receptors : a new paradigm for treating obesity and diabetes André J. SCHEEN (1), Nicolas PAQUOT (2) (1)
More informationPREDICTORS OF INCRETIN CONCENTRATIONS IN SUBJECTS WITH NORMAL, IMPAIRED, AND DIABETIC GLUCOSE TOLERANCE
Diabetes Publish Ahead of Print, published online December 5, 27 PREDICTORS OF INCRETIN CONCENTRATIONS IN SUBJECTS WITH NORMAL, IMPAIRED, AND DIABETIC GLUCOSE TOLERANCE Kirsten Vollmer 1, Jens J. Holst
More informationSeveral studies have linked size at birth, or indices
Early Differential Defects of Insulin Secretion and Action in 19-Year-Old Caucasian Men Who Had Low Birth Weight Christine B. Jensen, 1 Heidi Storgaard, 1 Flemming Dela, 2,3 Jens Juul Holst, 4 Sten Madsbad,
More informationType 2 DM in Adolescents: Use of GLP-1 RA. Objectives. Scope of Problem: Obesity. Background. Pathophysiology of T2DM
Type 2 DM in Adolescents: Use of GLP-1 RA Objectives Identify patients in the pediatric population with T2DM that would potentially benefit from the use of GLP-1 RA Discuss changes in glycemic outcomes
More informationZurich Open Repository and Archive. The dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitor NVP-DPP728 reduces plasma glucagon concentration in cats
University of Zurich Zurich Open Repository and Archive Winterthurerstr. 190 CH-8057 Zurich http://www.zora.uzh.ch Year: 2009 The dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitor NVP-DPP728 reduces plasma glucagon concentration
More informationThe Many Faces of T2DM in Long-term Care Facilities
The Many Faces of T2DM in Long-term Care Facilities Question #1 Which of the following is a risk factor for increased hypoglycemia in older patients that may suggest the need to relax hyperglycemia treatment
More informationDiabetes: What is the scope of the problem?
Diabetes: What is the scope of the problem? Elizabeth R. Seaquist MD Division of Endocrinology and Diabetes Department of Medicine Director, General Clinical Research Center Pennock Family Chair in Diabetes
More informationLUP. Lund University Publications Institutional Repository of Lund University
LUP Lund University Publications Institutional Repository of Lund University This is an author produced version of a paper published in The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism. This paper
More informationNeuroprotective properties of GLP-1 - a brief overview. Michael Gejl Jensen, MD Dept. Of Pharmacology, AU
Neuroprotective properties of GLP-1 - a brief overview Michael Gejl Jensen, MD Dept. Of Pharmacology, AU mg@farm.au.dk Agenda Glucagon-like peptide (GLP-1) GLP-1 and neuronal activity GLP-1 in disease-specific
More informationNew and Emerging Therapies for Type 2 DM
Dale Clayton MHSc, MD, FRCPC Dalhousie University/Capital Health April 28, 2011 New and Emerging Therapies for Type 2 DM The science of today, is the technology of tomorrow. Edward Teller American Physicist
More informationDiabetes 2013: Achieving Goals Through Comprehensive Treatment. Session 2: Individualizing Therapy
Diabetes 2013: Achieving Goals Through Comprehensive Treatment Session 2: Individualizing Therapy Joshua L. Cohen, M.D., F.A.C.P. Professor of Medicine Interim Director, Division of Endocrinology & Metabolism
More informationDiabetologia 9 Springer-Verlag 1984
Diabetologia (1984) 26:203 207 Diabetologia 9 Springer-Verlag 1984 How does glucose regulate the human pancreatic A cell in vivo? C. M. Asplin*, P. M. Hollander** and J. P. Palmer Diabetes Research Center
More informationDisclosure. Learning Objectives. Case. Diabetes Update: Incretin Agents in Diabetes-When to Use Them? I have no disclosures to declare
Disclosure Diabetes Update: Incretin Agents in Diabetes-When to Use Them? I have no disclosures to declare Spring Therapeutics Update 2011 CSHP BC Branch Anar Dossa BScPharm Pharm D CDE April 20, 2011
More informationJ O Clausen,, K Winther, O Pedersen. Find the latest version: J Clin Invest. 1996;98(5): https://doi.org/ /jci
Insulin sensitivity index, acute insulin response, and glucose effectiveness in a population-based sample of 380 young healthy Caucasians. Analysis of the impact of gender, body fat, physical fitness,
More informationSecretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analyses of clinical studies
Diabetologia (2013) 56:965 972 DOI 10.1007/s00125-013-2841-0 SYSTEMATIC REVIEW Secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analyses of clinical
More informationDiabetes and Obesity Sex- and Gender-differences!
Oskar Kokoschka 1908 Das Mädchen Li und ich Diabetes and Obesity Sex- and Gender-differences! Alexandra Kautzky Willer IGM, Berlin 2015 Global Diabetes-Epidemic Increase (%) in age-standardised diabetes
More informationDiabetologia 9 Springer-Verlag 1982
Diabetologia (1982) 22:245-249 Diabetologia 9 Springer-Verlag 1982 Twenty-Four Hour Profiles of Plasma C-Peptide in Type 1 (Insulin-Dependent) Diabetic Children G. A. Werther 1 *, R. C. Turner 2, P. A.
More informationGlucagon secretion in relation to insulin sensitivity in healthy subjects
Diabetologia (2006) 49: 117 122 DOI 10.1007/s00125-005-0056-8 ARTICLE B. Ahrén Glucagon secretion in relation to insulin sensitivity in healthy subjects Received: 4 July 2005 / Accepted: 12 September 2005
More informationFetal and Infant Growth and Glucose Tolerance in the Hertfordshire Cohort Study
Fetal and Infant Growth and Glucose Tolerance in the Hertfordshire Cohort Study A Study of and Born Between 1931 and 1939 David I.W. Phillips, Peter Goulden, Holly E. Syddall, Avan Aihie Sayer, Elaine
More informationUpdate on GLP-1 Past Present Future
Update on GLP-1 p Past Present Future Effects of GLP-1: Glucose Metabolism and Nutritional Balance L-Cells: Glp-1 release Betacellfollowing ingestion Stress Increases satiety reduces appetite Betacell-
More informationThe separate and combined impact of the intestinal hormones, GIP, GLP-1, and GLP-2, on glucagon secretion in type 2 diabetes
Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 300: E1038 E1046, 2011. First published March 8, 2011; doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00665.2010. The separate and combined impact of the intestinal hormones, GIP, GLP-1, and GLP-2,
More informationHyperglucagonaemia analysed by glucagon sandwich ELISA: nonspecific interference or truly elevated levels?
Diabetologia (2014) 57:1919 1926 DOI 10.1007/s00125-014-3283-z ARTICLE Hyperglucagonaemia analysed by glucagon sandwich ELISA: nonspecific interference or truly elevated levels? Nicolai J. Wewer Albrechtsen
More informationSubject Index. postprandial glycemia and suppression in serum 51 recommendations 119, 120 supplementation pros and cons 118, 119
Acarbose, diabetes prevention trials 32, 33, 40 42 Accelerator hypothesis accelerators beta cell autoimmunity 140, 141, 147, 150, 151 insulin resistance 140, 142 144, 150 obesity 145 148 diabetes risk
More informationRapid Tachyphylaxis of the Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 Induced Deceleration of Gastric Emptying in Humans
ORIGINAL ARTICLE Rapid Tachyphylaxis of the Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 Induced Deceleration of Gastric Emptying in Humans Michael A. Nauck, 1 Guido Kemmeries, 2 Jens J. Holst, 3 and Juris J. Meier 4 OBJECTIVE
More informationINJECTABLE THERAPIES IN DIABETES. Barbara Ann McKee Diabetes Specialist Nurse
INJECTABLE THERAPIES IN DIABETES Barbara Ann McKee Diabetes Specialist Nurse 1 Aims of the session Describe the different injectable agents for diabetes and when they would be used. Describe some common
More informationChief of Endocrinology East Orange General Hospital
Targeting the Incretins System: Can it Improve Our Ability to Treat Type 2 Diabetes? Darshi Sunderam, MD Darshi Sunderam, MD Chief of Endocrinology East Orange General Hospital Age-adjusted Percentage
More informationIs Reduced First-Phase Insulin Release the Earliest Detectable Abnormality in Individuals Destined to Develop Type 2 Diabetes?
Is Reduced First-Phase Insulin Release the Earliest Detectable Abnormality in Individuals Destined to Develop Type 2 Diabetes? John E. Gerich Insulin is released from the pancreas in a biphasic manner
More informationDPP-4 inhibitor. The new class drug for Diabetes
DPP-4 inhibitor The new class drug for Diabetes 1 Cause of Death in Korea 1 st ; Neoplasm 2 nd ; Cardiovascular Disease 3 rd ; Cerebrovascular Disease Diabetes 2 Incidence of Fatal or Nonfatal MI During
More informationIndia is one of the diabetes capitals of the world and at the same time the capital
Yajnik Undernutrition and Overnutrition During Pregnancy in India: C. S. Yajnik, MD, FRCP India is one of the diabetes capitals of the world and at the same time the capital for low birth weight (LBW)
More informationAbstract. Effect of sitagliptin on glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Introduction. Abbas Mahdi Rahmah
Effect of sitagliptin on glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes Abbas Mahdi Rahmah Correspondence: Dr. Abbas Mahdi Rahmah Consultant Endocrinologist, FRCP (Edin) Director of Iraqi National Diabetes
More informationTHE INCRETIN hormones gastrin inhibitory polypeptide
0021-972X/97/$03.00/0 Vol. 82, No. 3 Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism Printed in U.S.A. Copyright 1997 by The Endocrine Society Rapid Oscillations in Plasma Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 (GLP-1)
More informationGLP 1 agonists Winning the Losing Battle. Dr Bernard SAMIA. KCS Congress: Impact through collaboration
GLP 1 agonists Winning the Losing Battle Dr Bernard SAMIA KCS Congress: Impact through collaboration CONTACT: Tel. +254 735 833 803 Email: kcardiacs@gmail.com Web: www.kenyacardiacs.org Disclosures I have
More informationSupplementary Online Content
Supplementary Online Content Larsen JR, Vedtofte L, Jakobsen MSL, et al. Effect of liraglutide treatment on prediabetes and overweight or obesity in clozapine- or olanzapine-treated patients with schizophrenia
More informationTherapeutic strategy to reduce Glucagon secretion
Clinical focus on glucagon: α-cell as a companion of β-cell Therapeutic strategy to reduce Glucagon secretion Sunghwan Suh Dong-A University Conflict of interest disclosure None Committee of Scientific
More informationPathogenesis of Diabetes Mellitus
Pathogenesis of Diabetes Mellitus Young-Bum Kim, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Medicine Harvard Medical School Definition of Diabetes Mellitus a group of metabolic diseases characterized by hyperglycemia
More informationProf C.S. Yajnik MD,FRCP KEM HOSPITAL, PUNE, INDIA
Trans-generational impact of the double burden of malnutrition A case study from India Prof C.S. Yajnik MD,FRCP KEM HOSPITAL, PUNE, INDIA www.kemdiabetes.org Life can only be understood backwards - Soren
More informationGlucose-Dependent Insulinotropic Peptide Level Is Associated with the Development of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Original Article Endocrinol Metab 2016;31:134-141 http://dx.doi.org/10.3803/enm.2016.31.1.134 pissn 2093-596X eissn 2093-5978 Glucose-Dependent Insulinotropic Peptide Level Is Associated with the Development
More informationGLUCAGON LIKE PEPTIDE (GLP) 1 AGONISTS FOR THE TREATMENT OF TYPE 2 DIABETES, WEIGHT CONTROL AND CARDIOVASCULAR PROTECTION.
GLUCAGON LIKE PEPTIDE (GLP) 1 AGONISTS FOR THE TREATMENT OF TYPE 2 DIABETES, WEIGHT CONTROL AND CARDIOVASCULAR PROTECTION. Patricia Garnica MS, ANP-BC, CDE, CDTC Inpatient Diabetes Nurse Practitioner North
More informationGLP-1 agonists. Ian Gallen Consultant Community Diabetologist Royal Berkshire Hospital Reading UK
GLP-1 agonists Ian Gallen Consultant Community Diabetologist Royal Berkshire Hospital Reading UK What do GLP-1 agonists do? Physiology of postprandial glucose regulation Meal ❶ ❷ Insulin Rising plasma
More informationARTICLE. A. P. Gjesing & L. L. Kjems & M. A. Vestmar & N. Grarup & A. Linneberg & C. F. Deacon & J. J. Holst & O. Pedersen & T.
Diabetologia (2011) 54:103 110 DOI 10.1007/s00125-010-1940-4 ARTICLE Carriers of the TCF7L2 rs7903146 TT genotype have elevated levels of plasma glucose, serum proinsulin and plasma gastric inhibitory
More informationSitagliptin: first DPP-4 inhibitor to treat type 2 diabetes Steve Chaplin MSc, MRPharmS and Andrew Krentz MD, FRCP
Sitagliptin: first DPP-4 inhibitor to treat type 2 diabetes Steve Chaplin MSc, MRPharmS and Andrew Krentz MD, FRCP KEY POINTS sitagliptin (Januvia) is a DPP-4 inhibitor that blocks the breakdown of the
More informationEffects of subcutaneous glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1 [7 36 amide]) in patients with NIDDM
Diabetologia (1996) 39: 1546 1553 Springer-Verlag 1996 Effects of subcutaneous glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1 [7 36 amide]) in patients with NIDDM M.A. Nauck 1, D. Wollschläger 2, J. Werner 2, J.J. Holst
More informationTHE ASSOCIATION between low birth weight and the
0021-972X/00/$03.00/0 Vol. 85, No. 4 The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism Printed in U.S.A. Copyright 2000 by The Endocrine Society Insulin Resistance Early in Adulthood in Subjects Born
More informationCut Down on Carbohydrate usage in the Diet of Type 2 Diabetes Mechanisms of effective Therapy by selective Choice of Macronutrients
Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports Cut Down on Carbohydrate usage in the Diet of Type 2 Diabetes Mechanisms of effective Therapy by selective Choice of Macronutrients Mads Juul Skytte, MD, PhD-student
More informationESPEN Congress Madrid 2018
ESPEN Congress Madrid 2018 Dysglycaemia In Acute Patients With Nutritional Therapy Mechanisms And Consequences Of Dysglycaemia In Patients Receiving Nutritional Therapy M. León- Sanz (ES) Mechanisms and
More informationMetabolic Programming. Mary ET Boyle, Ph. D. Department of Cognitive Science UCSD
Metabolic Programming Mary ET Boyle, Ph. D. Department of Cognitive Science UCSD nutritional stress/stimuli organogenesis of target tissues early period critical window consequence of stress/stimuli are
More information