Revision workbook. Unit 1: Fitness for Sport and Exercise. Name

Transcription

1 Unit 1: Fitness for Sport & Exercise Revision workbook Unit Unit 1: Fitness for Sport and Exercise Name 1

2 Components of Physical Fitness (A.1) Aerobic endurance Add definition Identify alternate names What is involved in the cardiorespiratory system? What is the cardiorespiratory system responsible for? Sports where it is important? 2

3 Muscular endurance Add definition Sports where it is important? Flexibility Add definition Sports where it is important? 3

4 Speed Add definition Identify the three different types of speed Measured in? Sports where it is important? Muscular Strength Add definition Measured in? Sports where it is important? 4

5 Body Composition Add definition Importance to different sports? 5

6 Components of Skill Related Fitness (A.2) Agility Add definition Sports where it is important? Co-ordination Add definition Sports where it is important? 6

7 Balance Add definition Describe the two types Sports where it is important? Power Add definition Equation / Measured in Sports where it is important? 7

8 Reaction Time Add definition Sports where it is important? 8

9 Reasons fitness components are important for successful sports participation (A.3) 1 Successfully meet the physical demands of the sport in order to reach optimal performance. Explain using an example. 2 Being able to successfully meet the skill-related demands of the sport in order to reach optimal performance. Explain using an example.. 3 Being able to perform efficiently. Explain using an example.. 4 Giving due consideration to the type of event/position played. Explain using an example.. 9

10 Determining Exercise Intensity (A.4) Locations of pulse: How to measure your heart rate: Recorded as Beats Per Minute (BPM) 10

11 Calculation of maximum Heart Rate (HR) Age predicted Maximum HR Max HR= 220 Age Your Maximum Heart Rate Heart Rate Training Zones Please work out your age predicted heart rate training zones 60% x 0.6 = 220- Age = Max HR X 0.6 = 60% 85% 220- age = x 0.85 = X 0.8 = 80% X 0.9 = 90% 95% x 0.95 = 11

12 The Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE scale) 6 20% effort 7 30% effort Very, very light intensity 8 40% effort 9 50% effort Very light intensity 10 55% effort 11 60% effort Fairly light intensity 12 65% effort 13 70% effort Somewhat hard intensity 14 75% effort 15 80% effort Hard intensity 16 85% effort 17 90% effort Very hard intensity 18 95% effort % effort Very, very hard intensity 20 Exhaustion The suggested following relationship between HR training zones and the BORG scale : RPE x 10 = HR. 12

13 Principles of Training (A.5) Describe the FITT principles. F I T T List 3 ways that the intensity of exercise can be increased

14 How can fitness levels be improved using FITT principles? Write a training session for an athlete of your choice using the FITT principles 14

15 Additional Principles of Training (A6) Describe the additional principles of training. Progressive Overload Specificity Individual differences / needs Adaptation Reversibility Variation Rest and recovery 15

16 Fitness Training Methods (B1, B2, B3) Preparation for training Warm ups and cool downs should be specific to the training method to be undertaken. A warm up includes the following 3 phases. Give an example/explanation next to each phase. Pulse raising Stretching Joint mobilisation A cool down includes the following 2 phases: Pulse lowering Stretching 16

17 Flexibility Training (B.1 B.2 B.3) Static Stretching (Active and Passive) Active = independently Passive or Assisted = with another person or object Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) Stretching Develops mobility, strength and flexibility. Requires a partner or immovable object. PNF stretches can be used in rehabilitation programmes. Performer stretches to upper limit Partner holds ISOMETRIC contraction (no lengthening or shortening of the muscle) for 6-10 secs Relax the muscle perform static (passive) stretch again but further. The technique inhibits the stretch reflex = greater stretch/range of movement. Ballistic Stretching Fast, jerky movements through the complete range of motion. Bobbing or bouncing. Undertaken with care as can cause muscle strains and soreness. 17

18 Flexibility Training Advantages / Disadvantages: Advantages Static (Active) Simple Low risk of injury Disadvantages Can be boring Takes a long time Static (Passive) Simple Low risk of injury Allows a deeper stretch Can be boring Takes a long time Requires a partner or object to aid Ballistic Can include sport-specific exercises More interesting than static stretching PNF Allows the individual to achieve a greater stretch Very helpful for improving flexibility Associated with a high risk of injury Requires assistance of a partner Requires understanding of the technique Time-consuming Application of the Principles of Training Flexibility Training Stretching must be done regularly and thoroughly to see improvement (frequency, intensity, time). Athletes should develop all-round flexibility, as well as focusing on body parts which are more likely to determine success in sport. For example, a tennis player should be sure to maintain and develop flexibility in the arm and shoulder (specificity). If athletes fail to stretch regularly, they may lose flexibility (reversibility). Fitness Training Methods (B.1 B.2 B.3) Aerobic Endurance Training Define aerobic endurance: Endurance training takes part mainly in the aerobic training zone (60-85% MHR). The work to rest ratio should be 3:1- E.g. if you exercise for 30 minutes you would rest for 10 minutes. 18

19 Match up the definitions: Interval Training Continuous Training Fartlek Training Circuit Training This training can be called 'Speed play' training. It usually involves training outdoors and is continuous with no rests. The intensity is varied by training at different speeds or on different terrains or using equipment such as a weighted backpack. This involves alternating between periods of hard exercise (usually 30 sec- 5 minutes) and rest or recovery. It can be used to improve aerobic and anaerobic endurance. Rest or recovery can be in the form of jogging, walking or complete rest. Different stations/exercises are used to develop aerobic endurance. Station order is important to ensure different muscle groups are used to avoid fatigue. This involves working for a sustained period of time without rest. Usually lasting at least 30 minutes. It improves cardio-vascular fitness. Speed training Speed training is a method of training that develops a person s speed over short distances. It is very high intensity training and so work periods should be short (up to about 15 seconds) and frequently interspersed with lots of short rest periods. (like interval training) Work to rest ratio should be 1:6- E.g. work for 15 seconds and 90 seconds rest. 19

20 Hollow Sprints Similar to interval training broken up by a hollow period of either rest or lower level work. Session: 50m Sprint (6-7 sec) 50m Jog (25 sec) 50m Sprint (6-7 sec) 50m Walk (30 sec) 50m Sprint (6-7 sec) 150m walk (90 seconds) Repeated 5 times before a 10 minute rest. Acceleration sprints A form of anaerobic training where running speed is increased from jogging to striding and finally to sprinting at maximum speed. Each change usually takes place after 50m and rest periods of jogging or walking are between each sprint. Can start from a static, rolling or sport specific starting point Session: Face away from finish line on go turn and sprint to line Lie face down on go stand and run toward finish line Jog to first cone, stride to second cone, sprint to third cone Interval training Can be used to develop speed. Work periods should be short and close to maximal speed and recovery periods should be longer. Session: 6 x 50m sprints with 40 seconds rest 20

21 Fitness Training Methods (B1, B2, B3)- Strength, muscular endurance and power training Free weights An effective way to improve muscular strength and endurance. Encourages the body to develop core strength as the weight is unstable compared to resistance machines. Good techniques is vital to prevent injury. Ensure you work through a full range of motion (ROM). Use a spotter when necessary. 1 lift is called 1 repetition or rep. One repetition maximum (1RM) is the most a person can lift in 1 rep. The number of repetitions completed without rest is called a set. Rest in between sessions in order to aid recovery. Strength training (Maximum Strength) Muscular endurance training (Strength Endurance) Power training (Elastic Strength) Low reps and high resistance High reps and low resistance Medium reps and medium load 90% 1RM 1-6 reps Producing movement against high resistance 50-60% 1RM reps Repetitive movements of muscle/ muscle group 75% 1 RM 12 reps Movements in close succession 21

22 Some examples of free weight exercises: Bench press Squat Bicep curl 22

23 Concepts for Free-Weight Training Weight-training programmes should be carefully structured to ensure maximum effectiveness. A number of considerations should be made. Order Research suggests that the order of exercises in a training programme can significantly affect progress. Core exercises (those which work large muscles or muscle groups and help to stabilise the pelvis and spine, or which are the main exercises in the training programme) should be done first, and assistance exercises (which exercise smaller muscles or muscle groups and which may be sport-specific) should be done towards the end of the workout. This is because core exercises make use of many muscle groups, so if one of them is fatigued, it will cause a weak link in the chain and prevent the core exercise from being performed at full capacity. For example, if a person does leg presses (exercises leg muscles) prior to doing deadlifts (which exercise the legs as well as other large muscle groups), it is likely that the person will not perform the deadlifts to their full ability. Warm-up Core exercises Assistanc e exercises Cool-down A good Training Programme will include both upper and lower body exercises. To allow body parts adequate rest and recovery and prevent overuse injuries, it is sensible to alternate between upper body and lower body workouts. Athletes should also alternate between push and pull exercises. This will ensure that different muscle groups are being exercised. For example, a person performs overhead presses (push) and overhead pull-downs (pull). Reps, Sets and Recovery Weights can be used to exercise in different ways in order to improve specific components of fitness. The intensity of exercise can be varied using different combinations of weights, sets and repetitions and will result in different training effects. Athletes should allow adequate rest time between sets known as the rest period. Increasing the weight increases the intensity of weight training. The maximum amount of weight a person can lift for one repetition is known as their one rep max (1RM), usually measured in kilograms (kg). Knowing a person s 1RM means it is possible to work out the weights they should be using when performing exercises to achieve improvements in specific areas of fitness. This is because we know the intensity at which an athlete should train in order to improve various components of fitness. Athletes must ensure that the number of repetitions and sets being completed is appropriate considering: the weight of the load the fitness component which the athlete is seeking to develop the athlete s current level of ability 23

24 The training must not contain too few reps and sets, otherwise overload and adaptation will not occur and the training will not be effective. On the other hand, training must not be too hard, otherwise injury becomes more likely (refer to the principles of fitness). Circuit training A series of arranged exercises arranged in order. It can be used to develop strength, power, muscular endurance, agility, aerobic endurance in a limited time period. Involves a number of different exercises called stations one after anotherperform each exercise for a time and then move onto the next station sometimes with a timed rest in between (can also be replaced with running round the room or simply no rest) When all the exercises are finished you have completed one circuit. You can perform more than one circuit in a session. To apply progressive: Reducing rest times between exercises Increase exercise resistance Increase repetitions Increase stations Increase circuits Increase the workout time at each station The key point to remember when designing a circuit is not to exercise the same body part in consecutive exercises- alternate body parts. Plyometric Training This type of training is designed to improve strength and explosive power. It involves performing a jumping or throwing type of exercises where the performer moves quickly. 24

25 It involves an eccentric muscle action which lengthens the muscles followed quickly by a concentric action which shortens the muscle and produces more power. Think about when you stretch an elastic band- the further you stretch the band the more powerfully it contracts back. Exercises may include jumping, hopping, skipping, incline press ups, drop jumps, hurdles and lunging. You are more likely to suffer DOMS (Delayed onset of muscular soreness from plyometric training). Examples of plyometric exercises- 30 seconds on each exercise. 1 Squat jumps 3 Speed skater 2 Hurdle jumps 4 Switch jump lunges 25

26 5 Ball slams 7 Ladder jumps 6 8 Bench jumps Press ups 9 Hill climber 10 Burpees 26

27 Who would benefit from strength, muscular endurance and power training? Complete the table and identify 3 athletes in each section that may benefit from each type of training and reasons why. Strength- free weights Muscular endurance- circuit training Powerplyometrics Application of the Principles of Fitness Strength, Muscular Endurance and Power Training Training must be done frequently enough and for great enough intensity and time to elicit effects on fitness (FITT). The weights used and the number of reps/sets completed should be gradually increased to cause continued development of strength, muscular endurance and power components (progressive overload, adaptation). 27

28 If athletes stop training for a significant length of time, their fitness will decrease (reversibility). Training should be specific to the individual s sport, i.e. a sprinter needs to develop muscular endurance and power in the legs (specificity). Individuals must allow adequate rest and recovery between training sessions. Comparing the Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Training Methods Training Method Advantages Disadvantages Can improve several components of fitness. Sound knowledge required to plan circuit. Circuit training Plyometrics Variable resistance machines Free weights Is varied and interesting. Does not require expensive kit. May be adapted to suit different sports (specificity). Develops sport-specific explosive power and strength. Quick and easy to adjust the weight, so training can be progressed easily and performance measured. The load is stable, moving on a fixed plane, therefore reducing the risk of accidents. Exercises train both the muscles being targeted and the surrounding muscles which help to stabilise the body and maintain posture as the exercise is performed. May improve strength, muscular endurance and power. Can be varied and interesting with easily measured progression. May be time-consuming to plan and set up. Needs to be performed carefully because it can cause muscle soreness. Requires expensive equipment and may cause injury if the incorrect technique or weight is used. Some machines are not easily adjusted to suit the individual size of athlete, e.g. length of legs or arms. Requires equipment and planning. Can be dangerous if individuals attempt loads which they have inadequate strength or technique to lift. Associated with muscle soreness and injury because of high intensity and impact exercises. 28

29 Basic Requirements for Fitness Training Methods (B.1) Requirement Reason Example Safe and correct use of equipment Safe and correct training technique Requirements of the fitness training method Application of the basic principles of training (FITT) Training must be appropriate to the fitness component which needs to be developed Individuals must learn how to use any equipment or apparatus correctly. This will reduce the risk of accidents and injury during training. Equipment should be used only for the purposes for which it has been designed. Individuals must learn how to perform exercises correctly, using good technique and control. Again, this reduces the risk of accidents and injury. Individuals must be suitably prepared to complete the fitness training methods. This includes having the appropriate kit and doing a warmup/cool-down. In order to make sure the training is safe and most effective, application of FITT principles is essential. For example, the training session must be of the correct intensity and duration (time) in order to obtain improvements in fitness. Athletes must make sure that their personal exercise programme (PEP) contains training methods which will improve the specific health, physical or skill-related fitness component which they are seeking to develop. Will s personal trainer showed him how to handle the weights equipment correctly. The personal trainer demonstrated and explained to Will how to perform the lifts correctly. Will always does a warm-up before doing resistance training, which includes a thorough stretch. Will trains once per week for one hour at a moderate intensity. Will wanted to develop his muscular strength; therefore his personal trainer recommended he should do regular resistance training. If Will had wanted to improve a different component of fitness for example, his aerobic endurance he would need to use a continuous training method. 29

30 Additional Requirements for Fitness Training Methods (B.2) In order to make sure training programmes are most safe and effective, additional considerations must be made before selecting and commencing any kind of fitness training method. Consideration Reason Example Advantages/disadvantages of a training method Application of exercise intensity Application of principles of training Selecting the appropriate training method for a given situation Taking into account the client s personal needs, goals, aims and objectives While a particular training method will have advantages such as effectively improving fitness, it may be timeconsuming, boring, increase the risk of injury or require expensive equipment (disadvantages). The intensity of the training must be appropriate to the client s ability and experience, particularly when they are beginning a new exercise programme or where there are health issues. In order to obtain specific gains, exercise must occur at the correct intensity. In order to make training sessions most safe and effective, these principles should be applied at all times (specificity, progressive overload, etc.). For example, training sessions must seek to develop the components of fitness which are most necessary for success in an individual s specific sport (specificity). Consideration needs to be given to the space, equipment and finances, etc. available in order to follow a particular training method. The client may wish to improve their physical fitness in order to excel in a particular sport, or they may be exercising to improve their physical health or appearance. Such issues may affect an individual s choices about what kinds of training methods they will use, and which ones they will not use. To develop their aerobic endurance, a long-distance runner will need to ensure their heart rate remains in the target zone of 60 85% of their maximum HR. A tennis player will need a high level of speed and agility to perform well. If an athlete wants to improve their muscular endurance but does not have access to expensive equipment, they could set up a circuit of various stations incorporating resistance exercises using their own body weight for example, press-ups, squats, etc. The best training programme for a competitive badminton player will differ from that for a recreational player. 30

31 Case Study Read the paragraph below and identify the strengths and weaknesses in the training programme described. Paul s coach tells him that he needs to work on his aerobic endurance with some running training. He ignores his coach s advice, opting for regular weights training instead. Paul hasn t been shown how to perform the weightlifting techniques correctly, but he goes ahead and uses them anyway. He loads the barbell incorrectly, causing the weights to fall off when he lifts them, nearly causing the weights to fall on a person nearby! Paul insists on using extremely heavy weights and ends up giving himself a back injury. Paul has been told he should train three times per week, but he only does one because it is expensive to use the gym. 31

32 Fitness Testing Methods (C.1) Importance of fitness testing to performer and coach (C.2) Requirements for administration of fitness test (C.3) Interpretation of fitness test results (C.4) Considerations prior to conducting a fitness test What do you need to check regarding equipment? Why is it important to gain written informed consent? Choosing and carrying out fitness tests You need to establish which components are important for the individual and what the purpose of each test is so that they are appropriate. Consider the cost, practicality as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each test Follow the test protocol and ensure that you record the results and compare these to the normative data- this helps to identify strengths and areas for improvement. Reliability- can the test be repeated in the same way and give the same result. Validity- whether the test measures what it is supposed to test. Practicality- whether the tests are realistic and convenient to perform 32

33 SIT AND REACH TEST What is tested: Equipment needed: Purpose of test: Static flexibility of hamstrings and lower back muscles Sit and reach box or a box / bench and metre rule To test the flexibility of the hamstrings and Erector Spinae muscles Procedure & Measurement: Notes: Warm the client up for 5 minutes using CV exercise and modified hurdlers hamstring stretch The test should be done with shoes off and in nonrestrictive clothing The client sits with legs together and straight, and with feet flat against the sit and reach box. Client places one hand on top of the other and leans forward from the hips as far as possible reaching along the top of the box- hold position for 2 seconds. Record the furthest point the client reaches Perform the test three times and record the best measurement. Doing this test with cold muscles may result in muscle strain. Ensure knees not bent! 33

34 AEROBIC ENDURANCE- MULTISTAGE FITNESS TEST (BLEEP TEST) What is tested: Equipment needed: Purpose of test: VO2 max- aerobic fitness level Stereo, MSFT CD; cones, tape measure To estimate VO2 max (maximal oxygen uptake) by administering a progressive shuttle run test. Procedure & Measurement: Measure a distance of 20 metres and mark with two cones. Perform a short 5 minute cardiovascular warm up Start the CD, the participants will run 20 metres to the furthest cone when the first 3 bleeps sound. When the bleep sounds on the CD the participant turns around to run back. You must reach the other line on or before the bleep. The participants continue to run between the cones and the time between the bleeps becomes shorter- hence the participants need to run faster to reach the cones. If the participant fails to get to the other end before the bleep on 2 consecutive occasions then they must drop out. Record the level at which the participant stopped the test. Work out your VO2max based on the level the participant gets to and using the data table. Notes: As this is a maximal test, certain precautions should be taken. Participants should have no apparent health problems. A qualified First Aider should be present during the test. 34

35 AEROBIC ENDURANCE- FORESTRY STEP TEST What is tested: Equipment needed: Purpose of test: Cardio-respiratory efficiency- how heart rate increases with steady state exercise Step/ bench- 33cm for females and 40cm for males; metronome, stopwatch, heart rate monitor (if available) To determine cardio-respiratory endurance- how heart rate increases with steady state exercise. Procedure & Measurement: A warm up must NOT be completed. Participant steps up and down on a bench/ step for five minutes. Participant steps up and down in time with in time with the beat of a metronome set at 90bpm (approximately 22.5 steps per minute). Ensure feet are wholly on the bench each time. Participant is allowed to change lead leg. At the end of five minutes participant sits on bench. Locate pulse and start counting after 15 seconds of completion. Record pulse over next 15 seconds. Compare to VO2max tables- use your age (years), post exercise heart rate (BPM) and body weight (kgs) to calculate. Refer to normative chart for your age. 35

36 SPEED- 35 METRE SPRINT What is tested: Equipment needed: Purpose of test: Speed Cones, stopwatch, flat running surface (ideally indoors but can be outside), tape measure. To test speed. Procedure & Measurement: Perform a full warm up prior to the test- cardiovascular and stretches for all major muscle groups. Measure out the 35 metres and mark with cones. The participant will line up on the start line, in a standing start position. An assistant stands next to them with their arm up and the timer stands to the side of the finishing cone. When the sprinter is ready they will start and the assistant will lower their arm so that the timer can start the stopwatch. Time the run and record the time. This run should be repeated after at least a 3 minute recovery period. Only attempt a third trial if the difference between Trial 1 and 2 is more than 0.20 seconds. Record the best trail. Relate the times to the normative table. 36

37 ONE MINUTE PRESS UP TEST What is tested: Equipment needed: Purpose of test: Muscular endurance of pectoral and triceps muscles Mat, stopwatch and partner To test local muscular endurance in the pectoral and triceps muscles Procedure & Measurement: For men the Push Up Test is conducted as follows: Lie on the mat, hands slightly wider than shoulder width apart & fully extend the arms - see Figure 1 Lower the body until the chest is 2cm off the floor, arms are at 90 degrees, maintaining a straight back - see Figure 2 Return to the starting position with the arms fully extended - see Figure 1 The push up action is to be continuous with no rest Record the total number of successful press ups Figure 1 Figure 2 For women the Push Up Test can be modified as follows: Lie on the mat, hands shoulder width apart, bent knee position & fully extend the arms - see Figure 3 Lower the upper body until the elbows reach 90 - see Figure 4 Return to the starting position with the arms fully extended - Figure 3 see Figure 3 The push up action is to be continuous with no rest Record the total number of successful press ups Figure 4 37

38 ONE MINUTE SIT UP TEST What is tested: Equipment needed: Purpose of test: Muscular endurance of abdominal muscles Mat, stopwatch and partner To measure local muscular endurance in abdominal muscles Procedure & Measurement: Participant lies on mat on their back, knees bent, feet flat on the floor and arms folded across the body. Your feet may be held by a partner. On the command of go the participant raises to a 90 degree angle and perform a sit ups. They return back to the start position with their head touching the floor. That will be one repetition. The participant repeats this for 1 minute. Count number of successful sit ups. Consult normative table. Notes: This test is not recommended for those with lower back problems. Those with no apparent back problem should be careful not to perform this exercise too quickly and risk hurting the lower back. 38

39 ILLINOIS AGILITY TEST What is tested: Equipment needed: Purpose of test: Agility Cones, stopwatch, measuring tape To measure agility Procedure & Measurement: Ensure to warm up prior to test The course is set up as detailed in the diagram below Lie face down on the floor at the Start cone On the command GO jump up to your feet and negotiate the course around the cones following the red line route shown in the diagram to the finish An assistant will use a stop watch to time and record the time when you pass the Finish cone Notes: Ensure participant moves around the cones. 39

40 VERTICAL POWER- VERTICAL JUMP What is tested: Equipment needed: Purpose of test: Anaerobic power of the quadricep muscles Vertical jump board and (gymnasts) chalk / alternatively a wall some chalk and a metre rule To measure the power of the legs Procedure & Measurement: The athlete chalks the end of his/her finger tips The athlete stands side on to the wall, keeping both feet remaining on the ground, reaches up as high as possible with one hand and marks the wall with the tips of the fingers (M1- standing reach) The athlete from a static position jumps as high as possible and marks the wall with the chalk on his fingers (M2) The assistant measures and records the distance between M1 and M2 (D) The athlete repeats the test 3 times The best of the three attempts is plotted on the Lewis nomogram on line D. Weigh yourself and record your weight in kilograms on the nomogram on line W Use a ruler and a sharp pencil to join up the two plotsthis will cross the P line- this is your power measured in kg/s. 40

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42 GRIP STRENGTH DYNAMOMETER What is tested: Equipment needed: Purpose of test: Muscular strength- forearm Grip dynamometer To measure grip strength, which is a recognised indicator of overall muscular strength Procedure & Measurement: Switch on dynamometer. Adjust grip to comfortable position, to fit size of hand Hold dynamometer by side and squeeze as hard as you can for 5 seconds, without moving your arm and breathing out as you do so. Repeat test with other hand. Repeat 3 times on each side, there should be 1 minute rest between trials. Record three readings and choose the highest to refer to normative data chart. Notes: It is important to breathe out with the exertion of this test. 42

43 BODY COMPOSITION- SUM OF SKINFOLDS What is tested: Equipment needed: Purpose of test: Subcutaneous adipose tissue (predicts percentage of body fat) Skinfold calipers; marker Skinfold measurements give an indication of body composition- body fat percentage. It is the most commonly used field test for this component of fitness, but needs practice! Procedure & Measurement: Ensure client is comfortable with procedure. Take the measurements on the RIGHT side of the body with subject standing upright and muscles relaxed. Mark each skinfold point with a pen. Grasp the skin with the thumb and finger 1 cm above the marked site and gently pull the fat away from the muscle. Place the calipers perpendicular (at right angles to) to the fold at the marked point and with the dial facing upwards. Maintain the grasp while reading the caliper. Allow the calipers to settle for one or two seconds before reading and read the dial to the nearest 5.5mm and record the result. Allow skin to settle and repeat- take 2 measurements per site, 3 if repeated tests vary by 1mm. Add up the total of the 3 skinfold site measurements. Calculate body fat percentage using the nomogram plotting the sum of the 3 sites in mm and your age in years. Notes: Open the calipers before you remove from the skin. Male Sites: Pectoral (Chest): The pinch is taken between the nipple and the armpit (axilla) but closer to the armpit, approximately 1/3 the distance. The skinfold is a diagonal one in the direction of the nipple-armpit line. Abdomen (Belly): A vertical or horizontal fold is taken 2 centimeters to the right of the bellybutton (umbilicus). Quadriceps (Thigh): The skinfold here should be taken in the front, halfway from the upper part of the knee (proximal patella, where it corners when the leg is bend) and the fold above the thigh when the leg is raised (inguinal fold). The vertical fold should be pinched a little harder as fat and skin tissue in this area tends to be somewhat firmer. 43

44 Female Sites: Quadriceps (Thigh): The skin fold here should be taken in the front, halfway from the upper part of the knee (proximal patella, where it corners when the leg is bend) and the fold above the thigh when the leg is raised (inguinal fold). The vertical fold should be pinched a little harder as fat and skin tissue in this area tends to be somewhat firmer. Triceps (Upper arm, back): Pinch a vertical skinfold halfway the upper arm. If you want to be more precise, use a tape between the bony top of the shoulder or acromiale (do not confuse it with the bony upper part of the shoulder blade!) and the most prominent tip of the elbow (radiale). Mark a dot or a horizontal line at half the measured distance, here s where the vertical fat fold should be pinched. Face the hand palm forward. Suprailiac or Iliac crest (Hip, front): This skinfold is right below the front or anterior part of the armpit (axilla). From here follow a vertical line until you hit the hipbone. The skin fold is an angled one (approx. 45 going up and away from the body) 2 cms right above the iliac crest. The fold spot should be between the top of the hipbone on the side and the bony part on the lower right of the belly, which is still the same hipbone. 44

45 BODY MASS INDEX B.M.I. What is tested: Equipment needed: Purpose of test: Procedure: Assessment of body composition- body fat Height measure or tape measure, weighing scales To get an indication of physical dimension Height stand with heels against wall, with bare feet, eyes looking straight ahead. Weight Stand on scales in minimal clothing, ensuring scales are set to zero and standing on a hard, even surface. Measurement: Height - Measure in metres. Weight Measure in kilograms. Calculate Body Mass Index with the following equation: BMI = WEIGHT (Kg) (HEIGHT x HEIGHT) (m) Relate your score to the normative tables. Notes: BMI is a common way of indicating whether a client is obese/overweight though does not actually measure body composition as does not take into account muscle mass. Work out your body mass index (BMI) Example Your weight in kilograms (Height in metres x height in metres) kg 1.74m x 1.74m = BMI 19 Write your calculations here: 45

46 BODY COMPOSITION- BIOELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE (BIA) What is tested: Equipment needed: Purpose of test: Subcutaneous adipose tissue (body fat) Body Stat Monitor To give an indication of body composition. Though not as accurate as the skin fold measurement as it is easier to implement and is less intrusive to the participant. Procedure: The subject should not have exercised or taken a sauna within 8 hours of the test. The subject should refrain from alcohol intake for 12 hours prior to the study. The subject's height and weight should be accurately measured and recorded. The subject should lie quietly during the entire test. The individual must lay flat on the floor with their arms not touching their sides and their legs not touching one another. The electrode sites may need to be cleaned with alcohol, particularly if the skin is dry or covered with lotion. Electrodes are placed, two on the RIGHT hand and two on the RIGHT foot. *See diagram below* Information regarding the individual in relation to their height, weight and activity levels is inputted into the monitor. Within a few seconds the readings are sent through to the monitor display screen to be recorded. Measurement: The theory is that muscle will conduct the electricity (due to water content), while fat will resist the path of the electricity. Therefore the more electricity that comes out of the body, the more muscle a person has. 46

47 ( Importance of Fitness Testing to Sports Performers and Coaches (C.2) Athletes must train to develop the specific physical and skill-related fitness components which determine success in their chosen sport. Fitness testing is an important part of training and serves many purposes. A coach regularly carries out basic fitness tests on the players in his team and uses the results in different ways: 2. Aids the development of suitable 1. Gives baseline data for monitoring and improving performance Fitness tests allow an individual, or their trainer, to determine their current levels of fitness in given areas. Repeating tests later can indicate whether fitness is improving or deteriorating. training programmes Fitness testing enables individuals or their coaches to develop training programmes suited to their needs based on test results. Areas of weakness can be identified, and relevant training methods can then be incorporated into their PEP. Excellent; Leo s muscular endurance scores have increased significantly over the past two months. He has increased his number of pressups from 40 to 50 in 1 minute. Daniel s speed score is very poor. I will incorporate hollow sprint speed training into his programme! Despite doing regular resistance training, Lee s strength has not improved. We will need to increase the intensity of his workout by increasing weights used from 10 kg to 12 kg. Michael s skinfold tests showed he was overweight. He trained hard to reduce his body fat by 1% and now his performance has improved! 47

48 3. Sets targets for improvement Fitness testing can allow individuals or their trainers to set targets for improvements. This can help to develop motivation to train harder. 4. Ensures exercise training programmes are effective If programmes are not effective, then fitness testing will highlight this and prompt the individual or trainer to modify the training programme. The coach makes good use of fitness testing. He uses the tests to identify the players areas of strengths and weaknesses, which in turn allows him to determine whether their current training programmes are effective, and indicating where they need to be modified. The players are routinely tested to ensure their development continues and that the relevant areas of fitness are developed. Requirements for the Administration of Each Fitness Test (C.3) Advantages and Disadvantages of Fitness Tests The relative advantages and disadvantages of the various fitness tests may affect a trainer s decision whether or not they will be used. The following considerations should be made. To what extent is it practical to carry out the test? Some of the tests require specialist equipment, which is often expensive and also requires the person to have the necessary skills to use it. For example, skinfold tests require skinfold callipers, which can be expensive, and the person must be trained in how to use them if the results are to be accurate. Some tests such as the multistage fitness test, or the Illinois agility run require a specific set-up and adequate space to carry them out which may make them unpractical in some circumstances. Other tests are very practical, requiring minimal equipment or space and are very straightforward. To what extent are the results reliable? A test is considered reliable when it is repeatable and results are consistent. For example, if a person completes the same test three times and provides very different results each time, the test would be considered unreliable. Sticking to the standard testing and accurate measuring procedures increases the reliability of test results. To what extent are the results valid? The validity of a test is a key consideration. This refers to the extent to which the test measures what it is supposed to be measuring. For example, the validity of using BMI as a body composition measurement has already been highlighted as an issue, as it does not take into account muscle mass. 48

49 In other tests, where maximal effort is required, the validity of the results may be impaired by the participant s motivation to exert himself fully. 49

50 Interpretation of Fitness Test Results (C.4) The raw data of any fitness test is useless on its own. In order for conclusions to be drawn from data, it is important to know how to interpret the values obtained correctly. Only when the data has been correctly interpreted can it be useful in indicating an individual s fitness and in guiding the selection of appropriate training methods in order to improve fitness. When the same fitness tests are repeated over periods of time, the results can be logged and analysed. If training programmes are effective, then you will see improvements in performance over time. Where this does not occur, training programmes will need to be reassessed. Graphs are useful for recording and monitoring sporting performance. Results should usually be compared to normative published values as the standard protocol. This will indicate how an individual s performance compares to the known values for people of the same age and gender, and it can help to classify individuals as poor, average or above average in various fitness components. Through analysing the data in this way, it is possible to identify an athlete s strengths and weaknesses and set targets for improvement. You can also compare your results to those of your peers. The collective values can be used to calculate averages and indicate the relative levels of various fitness components in individuals. It can also help to identify anomalous results. Evaluating Tests Results Whenever drawing conclusions from data, always consider the issues of validity and reliability. There is the potential for error in any kind of testing, which can lead to questionable conclusions being made. Always be vigilant in spotting anomalous results and, if required, repeat tests to obtain accurate results. Reliable test results may be used to make recommendations for training programmes which will lead to improvements in components of fitness. Fitness testing identifies areas of weakness, which can then be targeted with specific training methods in order to improve performance. For example, an athlete who scores poorly on the Illinois agility run may incorporate extra agility training into their training programme, but this is only advisable where agility is a fitness component which will help them to be successful in their sport. A basketball player or footballer would understandably be concerned to score poorly for agility, whereas a cyclist or a sprinter should not. Always consider the particular physical and skill-related components of fitness required by an individual s chosen sport when drawing any kind of conclusions on their test results and subsequently making recommendations for training programmes or changes to existing ones. 50

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