Adv Higher Physical Education Project 2017 Section 2(a)

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1 Candidate 1 Evidence Section 2(a) Carry out a literature review to gather information about the research focus (marks available: 10) Anxiety in sport is when a performer becomes apprehensive of a perceived threat, 1 however anxiety is different for every individual in every situation (McCanny, 2013). The main causes of anxiety (Kremer, Moran 2008) are the pressure of being observed and not wanting to fail, adding unnecessary pressure onto the performer. Anxiety does not only affect amateurs and low performing athletes it affects the world s best, for example Rory McIllroy s collapse at the 2011 Masters. How negative energy affects performance? Dr Bob Rotella 2, one of the leading performance psychologists in golf, states that the mind controls the body because the body responds to what the mind sees and thinks, known as The Law of Attraction. 3 The mind and emotions have to be in the right place to maximise performance as it is thought all thoughts turn into things eventually. However, Rotella s main idea is that golf is not a game of perfect 4 and how the player overcomes mistakes determines how they score, as errors will be made. The best players in the world average only 12 greens a round but they have worked and found a strategy that works for them to overcome negative energy generated from mistakes. Rotella advises people to try and change the way in which they react to good and bad shots. Normal response is to connect a strong emotion to a bad shot and have very little emotion after good shots. Changing the response can help performers forget their bad shots, reducing negative energy, and remembering their good shots can increase the performer s confidence. Andy Copes 5 90/10 Principal focuses on how an individual can t control everything that happens to them but can choose how to react (Cope 2010). Controlling reaction has a direct link to following events. How attention control affects performance? Under pressure distractions like the crowd, opponents and excitement can make it difficult to maintain attention control. Dr Fran Pirozzolo 6 is a sports psychologist that has worked with the New York Yankees and golfers Bernard Langer and Nick Price. His main focus is getting athletes mentally tough and comfortable in high pressure situations. He uses the phrase quality at bat (a baseball phrase) as it encourages golfers not to rate the outcome but rate the commitment to the shot. This encourages them to Golf Is Not A Game Of Perfect, Dr Bob Rotella, Art Of Being Brilliant, Andy Copes and Andy Whittaker, Getting tough in golf and baseball, Dr Fran Pirozzolo SQA 1 of 6

2 always commit to the shot in any situation improving their attention control and focus when making a decision. One way in which Pirozzolo helps golfers prepare for a tournament is using imagery to visualise how chaotic and stressed out the player will be on Sunday afternoon coming down the stretch and how he needs to respond. To mimic this situation Pirozzolo uses an audio CD so the players can visualise being in that specific situation, practicing calming themselves down using phrases that work for them to improve attention control. His definition of what mental toughness is, is the ability to have something to take care of every problem A player is confident when he knows he can handle whatever is thrown at him (Pirozzolo 2010). John Mathers 7, who works very closely with Jamie Murray discusses the importance of remaining positive to improve skill execution as attention or focus is lost through dwelling on mistakes. He says when Murray is angry his posture when returning serve is very poor so it becomes hard for him to execute an effective return. Daniel Levitin 8 states that when an individual is stressed the brain releases cortisol, increasing heart rate and clouding the thinking process. He believes systems should be put in place before the stressful event takes place. His final point is that everybody is going to fail and planning and expecting difficult situations is an important part of mental preparation. Martin Hagger 9 discusses how athletes always perform on the big stage stating how their pre competition routines are completely different, but yet they work for the individual. Having a routine helps an athlete get comfortable before competition but there are many different routines (Hagger, 2013). His image of an athlete that is mentally stable and capable of winning in a high-pressure situation is that he is confident, has routine and manages anxiety. He believes past experiences, modelling (imagery and self-talk) and positive feedback can all help. Dr Ivan Joseph 10 highlights the importance of self-confidence and believes it can be trained through repetition and self-talk. He recommends the use of a self-confidence letter, which they can refer back to during times of self-doubt. Hagger encourages breathing techniques, stretching and the use of music. Michael Phelps, Olympic champion swimmer, listens to music right up until his competition begins, helping him relax, get into the right frame of mind and motivate him to perform his best. Hagger advises visualisation and positive self-talk within a pre shot routine to boost confidence and create focus. 7 SMC Lecture, Mental Skills and Sporting Performance, John Mathers 8 How to stay calm when you know you ll be stressed, Daniel Levitin 9 xwzqv, Inside the mind of champion athletes, Martin Hagger 10 The skill of self-confidence, Dr Ivan Joseph SQA 2 of 6

3 Candidate 2 Evidence Section 2(a) Carry out a literature review to gather information about the research focus (marks available: 10) Football is a game that involves an array of different movement types throughout, all incorporating various physical factors. Perhaps the most relevant example is the use of short, sharp sprints which may be used both defensively and offensively, multiple times throughout a game. Such movements are among the most frequently used: about 90% of sprints performed by professional soccer players were shorter than 5 seconds (Andrzejewski et al., 2013). Furthermore, statistics from the FIFA Women s World Cup in 2011 highlighted an average sprinting distance of 14.0 metres (see appendix 7). This would suggest that speed over short distances is pivotal in performing at a high level in football and therefore, possessing weakness in such an area must be addressed. Like most areas of physical performance, an athlete s sprint speed is determined by multiple factors, one of which is their muscle fibres. Skeletal muscle fibres can be divided into 3 categories type I, type II A and type II B, all of which are present to various degrees in all humans. The latter, however, is the category that we must focus on in reagards to sprint speed. As highlighted by Gaudette (2017), sprinting and other quick, power-dependent movements depend majorly upon fast-twitch glycolytic muscle fibres (type II B). Such fibres are generally present in a 1:1 ratio with their slow counterparts but can be of greater prevalence (or equally, lesser) based on genetics, claims Trappe (2014). Additionally, Trappe suggests that, in incorporating specific training methods, a small portion of an individual s slow-twitch fibres can be converted into fast-twitch fibres. Whilst the average distribution of type I and type II muscle fibres if fifty percent each way, elite sprinters are shown to have significantly more type II fibres (Competitor.com, 2014). Whether this is based solely upon heredity cannot be said with certainty, however, Trappe (2014) indicates that training also makes an impact. Such a belief is reinforced by the studies of Dawson (1998), highlighting that short sprint training can lead to a notable increase in fast-twitch fibres. The subjects in said study undertook a 6-week program during which they completed sprints between 30m and 80m in distance. This was done with maximal effort, times per session and 2/3 times a week. Similar findings were presented by Jansson (1990), based on studies in which subjects would complete thirty second sprints on an exercise bike against resistance. This was carried out 2-3 times per week for a period lasting 4-6 weeks. Although the previously mentioned studies provide rather compelling evidence, Zuniga (2014) suggests that muscle fibres cannot be converted from slow-twitch to fast-twitch. Given this, it seems necessary to consider methods of developing other factors involved in sprint speed, particularly those relating to power. Chu (1983) described power as a combination of sheer strength and speed of movement to produce an SQA 3 of 6

4 explosive-reactive type of movement. As the development of speed, specifically that based upon the conversion of muscle fibres, can be disputed, it seems wise to look at the remaining component strength. Voza (2015) defines strength as the ability of a muscle or muscle group to exert force to overcome the most resistance in one effort and states strength can be measured based on the amount of weight lifted. A common test used in relation to an individual s strength is the squat 1RM, a movement that Wisløff (2004) found to have a strong correlation to sprint speed. The presence of this correlation has been shown further by McBride (2009), whose study highlighted a clear relationship between relative squat strength and sprint speed over short-distances. Similar findings have been common and, in a study comparing improvements in back squat strength to sprint performance in rugby league players, it was concluded that: To increase short sprint performance, athletes should, therefore consider increasing maximal strength via the back squat. (Comfort, 2012). Considering the research cited above, it seems reasonable to consider training one s squat in order to address sprint speed. Whilst there are an array of ways to target this goal, Thibaudeau (2014) claims that for gaining size and strength, the classic 5x5 stands tall. This refers to a training method involving 5 sets of 5 repetitions and is further advocated by the research of Berge (2013) into the best number of repetitions to build strength, which found the optimum number of repetitions was found to be between 3 and 9. Given this, it is reasonable to suggest that strength programs that focus on these repetition ranges are an effective approach in improving one s squat. An example of such a program is Stronglifts 5x5 which revolves around training compound lifts, 3 times per week, placing major emphasis on the barbell back squat. By increasing the weight by 2.5kg every workout, the routine abides by the principle of progressive overload, which states: In order for a muscle to grow, strength to be gained, performance to increase, or for any similar improvement to occur, the human body must be forced to adapt to a tension that is above and beyond what it has previously experienced (AWorkoutRoutine.com, 2017). This is considered by Contreras (2013) as the most important law in strength training and therefore it is crucial that this is implemented in order to increase one s overall squat strength. However, in a program like Stronglifts 5x5 where the weight used is increased every session, intensity, defined as the amount of weight lifted ( Defining Intensity In The Weight Room The Science Of Iron! ), soon becomes excessive so may need to be compensated for. Rather than isolating the components of power, approaches such as plyometrics develop power itself. This is defined as Any exercise in which muscles are repeatedly and rapidly stretched ( loaded) and then contracted (MedicineNet, 2016). In a study conducted by Meylan (2009), young football players were subjected to plyometric training, spanning over and 8-week period. This involved jumping, hurdling, bouncing, skipping, and footwork in addition to conventional drills. Not only did this result in significant increase in speed over short distances, it also proved beneficial in regards to agility and jumping ability; traits that are equally relevant on the football pitch. Whilst this study highlights the benefits of plyometrics, it lacks a certain degree of specificity as to the program used. Villarreal (2012) concluded that, to optimise the SQA 4 of 6

5 effect of plyometrics, training programs should last less than 10 weeks, with no fewer than 15 sessions over this time span. Additionally, it has been suggested that participants should rest of a day in between sessions (Chu, 1998). Said sessions should include more than 80 total jumps per session, particularly those that focus upon horizontal movement to tailor the program to sprint speed (Villarreal, 2012). Both strength training and plyometics can be merited on their benefits towards power and sprint speed. However, it is unclear whether these approaches should be used simultaneously or separately to provide the best results. In order to gain insight on this. Ronnestad (2008) conducted a study comparing the effects of strength training alone, to strength training in addition to plyometrics. The results showed that there are no significant performance-enhancing effects of combining strength and plyometric training in professional soccer players concurrently performing 6 to 8 soccer sessions a week compared to strength training alone. With that said, others (Pponline.co.uk, 2017) endorse the combination of approaches, claiming that performing both types of exercise in the same workout will make fast-twitch muscle fibres more responsive and, in time, allow individuals to improve their power, and consequently, their speed. SQA 5 of 6

6 Candidate 1 commentary Stage 2(a) Carry out a literature review to gather information about the research focus (10 marks) The candidate was awarded 9 marks for this stage of the project. This review is tightly focussed on the research question Will developing mental strategies and a consistent pre-shot routine in high pressure situations improve my overall performance in golf? Paragraph 1 Anxiety in sport.at the 2011 Masters 1 mark Paragraph 2 Dr Bob Rotella.things eventually 1 mark Paragraph 3 However, Rotella s main.the performers confidence 1 mark Paragraph 5 Under pressure distractions focus when making a decision 1 mark Paragraph 5 One way in which is thrown at him 1 mark Paragraph 7 Daniel Levitin part of mental preparation 1 mark Paragraph 8 Martin Hagger discusses.during times of self-doubt 2 marks Paragraph 9 Hagger encourages breathing.boost confidence and create focus 1 mark Candidate 2 commentary Stage 2(a) Carry out a literature review to gather information about the research focus (10 marks) The candidate was awarded 10 marks for this stage of the project. This review is tightly focussed on the research question Will improving my sprint speed over short distances improve the effectiveness of my performance, both offensively and defensively, in football. Paragraph 1 Such movements 14.0 metres 1 mark Paragraph 2 As highlighted by Gaudette fast-twitch fibres 1 mark Paragraph 3 Whilst the average period lasting 4-6 weeks 1 mark Paragraph 4 Although the previously mentioned component-strength 1 mark Paragraph 5 Voza (2015).via the back squat 1 mark Paragraph 6 Considering the research.may need to be compensated for 2 marks Paragraph 7 Rather than isolating.program to sprint speed 2 marks Paragraph 8 Both strength training.and consequently, their speed 1 mark (Note: this would have been awarded 2 marks, but the maximum allocation had been reached). SQA 6 of 6