Coronary heart disease mortality, plasma homocysteine, and B-vitamins: a prospective study

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1 Atherosclerosis 166 (2003) 369/377 Coronary heart disease mortality, plasma homocysteine, and B-vitamins: a prospective study Angelika de Bree a,b, W. Monique M. Verschuren a, *, Henk J. Blom b, Marie Nadeau c, Frans J.M. Trijbels b, Daan Kromhout d a Department of Chronic Disease Epidemiology (pb 101), National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), PO Box 1, NL-3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands b Laboratory of Pediatrics and Neurology, University Medical Centre St. Radboud, Nijmegen, The Netherlands c US Department of Agriculture Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging at Tufts University, Boston, MA, USA d Division of Nutrition and Consumer Safety, National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, The Netherlands Received 6 June 2002; received in revised form 9 September 2002; accepted 9 October 2002 Abstract The results of prospective studies on the relations between the plasma concentration of total homocysteine (thcy) and B-vitamins, on the one hand, and coronary heart disease (CHD) mortality, on the other hand, are inconclusive and scarce considering the relation with B-vitamins. We prospectively determined these relations in a case-cohort study. The full-cohort existed in /36,000 Dutch adults aged 20 /59 years at baseline. The statistical analyses were done with a random sample from the cohort (n/630) complemented with all subjects who died of CHD (n/102) during a mean follow-up of 10.3 years. All subjects reported the absence of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) at baseline. The plasma concentrations of thcy, folate, PLP, and vitamin B12 were determined in samples obtained at baseline. Men with a thcy concentration in the highest tertile (T3) compared with men in the lowest tertile (T1) had a relative risk (RR) of 1.14 for CHD (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.50, 2.61) after adjusting for age, study center, hypertension, HDL and total cholesterol, smoking, and creatinine. For women, this RR was 2.04 (95% CI: 0.48, 8.62). For each 5 mmol/l increase in thcy, the RR of CHD was 1.03 (95% CI: 0.83/1.29) for men and women combined. In women only, high folate levels were associated with a statistically significant protection of fatal CHD (T3 versus T1; RR: 0.22, 95% CI: 0.06, 0.87). Plasma PLP (B6) and vitamin B12 concentrations were not associated with CHD risk. We conclude that elevated thcy concentrations do not seem to be a risk factor for CHD mortality in these relatively young healthy Dutch subjects free of baseline CVD. Higher folate concentrations may be protective of CHD, but this needs confirmation. # 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. Keywords: Homocysteine; Coronary diseases; Prospective studies 1. Introduction About 30 years ago, McCully and Wilson [1] postulated that moderately elevated plasma total homocysteine (thcy) concentrations were causally related to the development of coronary heart disease (CHD). Although initially numerous case /control and crosssectional studies supported this hypothesis [2], nowadays several issues have led to a more cautious approach * Corresponding author. Tel.: / ; fax: / address: wmm.verschuren@rivm.nl (W.M.M. Verschuren). of elevated thcy concentrations being a causal risk factor for CHD. The first concern is that the exact mechanism that underlies this association is not understood [3]. Furthermore, a genetic defect in the gene encoding for MTHFR (a key enzyme in homocysteine metabolism) resulting in elevated thcy concentrations is not consistently associated with the risk of CHD [4]. Finally, prospective epidemiological studies which compared with case/control and cross-sectional studies have a stronger methodological design to identify causal relationships and show less convincing evidence for the hypothesis [5]. Thus, pending intervention trials in which the thcy concentration is lowered with folic acid and other B-vitamins [6] and proof of a causal /02/$ - see front matter # 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. PII: S ( 0 2 )

2 370 A. de Bree et al. / Atherosclerosis 166 (2003) 369/377 relation between the thcy concentration and CHD are not available. Of the prospective studies that have been performed in populations not selected on the basis of their risk of CHD, a small majority showed an independent statistically significant association between elevated thcy levels and the development of CHD [7 /15]. Others found associations that were compatible with an increased risk, but lacked statistical significance [16 /18] and a minority found no association [19 /23]. These inconsistencies could be partly derived from different lengths of follow-up and differences in the study populations. We prospectively studied the relation between the thcy concentration and the risk of CHD mortality after 10.3 years of follow-up in Dutch adult (20/59 years) men and women free of baseline cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). In addition, we also investigated plasma concentrations of folate, vitamin B6 (PLP), and B12 in relation to CHD mortality. These B-vitamins, which are important in homocysteine metabolism, may be inversely associated with CHD [16,24/27]. 2. Methods 2.1. Study population From 1987 to 1991, the Monitoring Project on CVD Risk Factors collected information on more than 36,000 men and women aged 20/59 years from three Dutch cities (Amsterdam, Doetinchem, and Maastricht). A detailed description of the monitoring project is given elsewhere [28]. In brief, each year a new random sample of men and women aged 20/59 years was selected from the municipal registries of the three cities and invited to participate. The overall response rate was 50% for men and 57% for women. A non-response study indicated that about 10% of the non-response was due to errors in the municipal registries and the fact that people had moved since the addresses were obtained. Furthermore, the non-response study showed that the educational level used as an indicator of selection bias was comparable for responders and non-responders indicating that the population that participated was reasonably representative for the total invited population [28]. All participants were physically examined and filled out a self-administered questionnaire [29] Baseline measurements During the physical examination, the systolic and diastolic blood pressures were measured twice on the left arm using a random zero sphygmomanometer while the subject was seated. We used the mean of the two measurements in our analyses. Weight and height were measured to calculate the body mass index (BMI; kg/ m 2 ), an index of relative weight. The self-administered questionnaire provided information on demographic variables (e.g. education), history of CVD, history of diabetes, medication, and several lifestyle and dietary habits. Educational level, measured with a standardized questionnaire, was classified into three categories: low (intermediate secondary education or less), medium (intermediate vocational or higher secondary education), and high (higher vocational or university education). A history of CVD was defined as a positive answer on the questions: (1) Are you medically treated by a physician or specialist for heart problems? (2) Did you ever experience a myocardial infarction? (3) Did you undergo heart surgery? and (4) Did you ever experience a cerebrovascular accident? The question: Do you have diabetes? was used to define a history of diabetes. Hypertension was defined as systolic blood pressure ]/140 mmhg or diastolic blood pressure ]/90 mmhg or the use of anti-hypertensive medication. Smoking habits were dichotomized into non-smoking and smoking (]/1 cigarette per day). The amount and type of alcoholic beverage were re-coded into total alcohol consumption in glasses per day. Coffee consumption was recorded in cups per day. Vitamin supplement use was requested in categories, e.g. vitamin C, multivitamins, B-vitamins complex, etc. As the questionnaire did not ask for the vitamin dose, we created a variable that indicated whether a subject used supplements containing B-vitamins or not. Participants scored physical activity separately for activity during work and leisure time. Of these scores, we created one physical activity variable with three levels: (1) inactive, i.e. little or no exercise during leisure time and/or work time, (2) regularly active, i.e. regular exercise during leisure time (/4 h per week), no physical activity during work, and (3) regular strenuously active, i.e. regular (strenuous) exercise during leisure time, and/or frequent or continuously physical strenuous work. This categorization correlated positively with HDL cholesterol levels Mortality follow-up The mortality follow-up lasted until January 1, 2000 (minimum of 8 years and maximum of 13 years). Information about the vital status was obtained from the municipal population registry in the town of residence. If a person had moved with unknown destination, the date on which the person s name was removed from the municipal population register was used as a censor date. For our population, 0.02% was lost to follow-up. Causes of death were identified through linkage with Statistics Netherlands. Causes of death were coded according to the ninth revision of the International Classification of Diseases

3 A. de Bree et al. / Atherosclerosis 166 (2003) 369/ (ICD-9) for deaths that occurred before January 1, 1996 ( /50% of all deaths) and according to the tenth revision (ICD-10) for deaths that occurred from January 1, 1996 onwards. CHD was defined as ICD-9 codes 410 /414 or ICD-10 codes I20/I Definition of the cohort We used a case-cohort design for this study. This means that the plasma thcy, B-vitamins, and creatinine concentrations were determined for all subjects (cases) that died of CHD during January 1987 and 2000 (n/ 170) and for a random sample (n/749), also called the reference cohort or sub-cohort, of the total Monitoring Project population. No stratification or matching was performed for the random sample that served as the source of information about the full-cohort Laboratory measurements During the physical examination, non-fasting venous blood samples were collected in EDTA tubes. To obtain plasma, the samples were centrifuged after a maximum storage period of 3 h at room temperature. Non-fasting plasma total- and HDL cholesterol were enzymatically determined using a Boehringer test kit, within 3 weeks after collection. HDL cholesterol was determined after precipitation of the apo-b-containing lipoproteins with magnesiumphosphotungstate [29]. The cholesterol levels were determined at the Central Clinical Chemistry Laboratory of the University Hospital Dijkzigt in Rotterdam, a reference laboratory that participated in the standardization program of the World Health Organization. For this study, additional laboratory analyses were carried out in plasma samples that were stored at / 20 8C for 10 /14 years. The laboratory technicians were unaware of the case-status of the samples. The thcy concentration, including the protein-bound and nonprotein-bound fractions of homocysteine, was measured using high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection, as described by Fiskerstrand et al. [30] with some modifications [31]. The within- and between-run coefficients of variation (CVs) were 2.9 and 6.1%, respectively. Plasma folate and vitamin B12 were determined with a commercial radio assay (Quantaphase II, B12/Folate radioassay, Bio-Rad Diagnostics Group) in the laboratory of Dr. Jacob Selhub of the Human Nutrition Research Center on Aging at Tufts University, Boston, MA. For folate, the within- and between-run CVs were 11.4 and 13.1%, respectively, and for vitamin B12, 5.1 and 7.6%, respectively. Plasma vitamin B6 (measured as pyridoxal 5?-phosphate, i.e. PLP) was measured with a semi-automated fluorometric method by high-performance liquid chromatography, with a within- and between-run CVs of, respectively, 5.7 and 9.7%. Plasma creatinine was determined with a modified Jaffe method, with a within- and between-run CVs of 1.1 and 1.5%, respectively Data analyses All statistical analyses were done with SAS statistical software (version 8.1) (SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, North Carolina). We used only those subjects with complete information on plasma concentrations of thcy, B- vitamins and creatinine, blood pressure, cholesterol level, smoking, history of CVD, and diabetes: i.e. 154 CHD cases and 669 subjects from the reference cohort (n /821 in total, as two CHD cases belonged also to the reference cohort). Additionally, 89 subjects were excluded because they reported prevalent CVD at baseline. Thus, all analyses in this report are based on 732 subjects: 103 incident CHD cases and 630 reference subjects, as one CHD case belonged also to the reference cohort. Judged by the absence of substantial differences in the distribution of several key variables (% males, % smokers, % low education, total and HDL cholesterol level, systolic and diastolic blood pressure), the reference cohort was representative for the total population of the monitoring project. To determine the relation of the thcy level with other variables, the reference cohort was divided into equal thirds (tertiles) according to the thcy distribution. Analyses of covariance implemented in the SAS PROC GLM procedure were used to compute age, sex and study center adjusted mean levels, or percentages, of variables by tertiles of the thcy concentration. Trends over the tertiles were computed with linear regression analyses, modeling the tertiles as a continuous variable. For the concentrations of thcy, B- vitamins, and creatinine, we present geometric means, as these variables were skewed towards higher values and we used logarithmic transformations to normalize their distributions. To determine the relation between several variables and case-status, we computed mean or percentage values with analyses of covariance for cases versus the reference cohort and tested the difference with PROC GLM. Cox s proportional-hazard analysis was used to estimate the relative risks (RRs) of CHD mortality in relation to tertiles of thcy and plasma B-vitamin levels. Additional analyses with the independent variables as continuous variables were also performed. To calculate valid 95% confidence intervals (CIs) around the RRs in this case-cohort design [32,33], we used an SAS macro available at Interaction terms between our independent variables of interest (plasma levels of thcy and B-vitamins) and age, sex, smoking, hypertension, and cholesterol level were

4 372 A. de Bree et al. / Atherosclerosis 166 (2003) 369/377 evaluated. As we found a significant interaction between plasma folate and sex, we stratified our analyses for sex. Variables that were included as possible confounders in multivariate models were age, study center (indicator variables for Maastricht and Doetinchem with Amsterdam as reference center), creatinine level, hypertension, smoking (no/yes), HDL cholesterol, total cholesterol, BMI, physical activity (indicator variables for regularly active and regularly strenuously active, with inactive subjects as reference), education (indicator variables for high and medium education, with low education as reference), and alcohol consumption (indicator variables, in men: /0 to 5/2 glasses per day and /2 glasses per day with abstainers as reference, in women: /0 to5/1 glasses per day and /1 glasses per day, with abstainers as reference). As there were only seven subjects (four CHD cases) who had a history of diabetes after exclusion of subjects with CVD at baseline, we did not adjust for this variable. 3. Results 3.1. Characteristics of the cohort Table 1 shows the age, sex, and study center adjusted mean levels or percentages of variables in the reference cohort according to the tertile distribution of the thcy concentration. Variables that were inversely associated with the thcy concentration were plasma levels of B- vitamins and B-vitamin supplement use. Variables that were positively associated with the thcy concentration were creatinine level, diastolic blood pressure, and prevalence of hypertension (borderline). Other lifestyle and CHD risk factors were not associated with the thcy concentration Mean differences between CHD cases and non-cases Table 2 shows the variables that were associated with case-status. Cases were older, more likely to be male, and had higher thcy and lower plasma folate and PLP concentrations. Furthermore, their CHD risk profile was unfavorable compared to non-cases. For example, they had a higher blood pressure (systolic and diastolic) and total cholesterol level. Furthermore, their HDL cholesterol level was lower and they were more likely to be smokers RR of CHD During a mean follow-up of 10.3 years, 78 men and 25 women died of CHD. Table 3 shows that there was a statistically non-significant positive association between the thcy concentration and the incidence of CHD mortality in men as well as in women, after correction for age and study center. After additional adjustment for CHD risk factors (HDL cholesterol, total cholesterol, hypertension, creatinine, and smoking), the RR attenuated. As there was no statistically significant interaction between sex and the thcy concentration on the RR of fatal CHD, we calculated the RR for each 5 Table 1 Mean adjusted (age, sex, and study center) levels of study variables according to tertiles (T) of the thcy concentration in the reference cohort existing of Dutch men and women aged 20/59 years examined in 1987/1991 Variable Tertiles of thcy T1 (n207) T2 (n206) T3 (n217) P for trend thcy (mmol/l) Range 6.4/ / /53.9 Plasma folate (nmol/l) Plasma PLP (nmol/l) Plasma vitamin B12 (pmol/l) Plasma creatinine (mmol/l) Systolic blood pressure (mmhg) Diastolic blood pressure (mmhg) Total cholesterol (mmol/l) HDL cholesterol (mmol/l) BMI (kg/m 2 ) Alcohol (glasses per day) Coffee (cups per day) Smokers (%) B-vitamin supplement users (%) Hypertension (%) Diabetes (%) Inactive (%) Low education (%)

5 A. de Bree et al. / Atherosclerosis 166 (2003) 369/ Table 2 Mean adjusted (age, sex and study center) levels of study variables in CHD cases versus non-cases consisting of Dutch men and women aged 20/59 years examined in 1987/1991 Variables Non-cases (n630) Fatal CHD cases (n103) P for difference Age (years) (not adjusted for age) Males (not adjusted for sex) (%) thcy (mmol/l) Plasma folate (nmol/l) Plasma PLP (nmol/l) Plasma B12 (pmol/l) Plasma creatinine (mmol/l) Systolic blood pressure (mmhg) Diastolic blood pressure (mmhg) Total cholesterol (mmol/l) HDL cholesterol (mmol/l) Coffee (cups per day) Alcohol (glasses per day) BMI (kg/m 2 ) Smokers (%) B-vitamin supplement users (%) Hypertension (%) History of diabetes (%) Inactive (%) Low education (%) mmol/l increase in thcy concentration for men and women together. After adjustment for the variables of model 2 (Table 3) and for sex, we found an RR of 1.03 (95% CI: 0.83, 1.29). The plasma folate concentration was inversely associated with the risk of CHD mortality in women (P for trend 0.03) after correction for age and study center. There was no association in men. Additional correction for CHD risk factors did not materially change the protection of a high folate level for fatal CHD in women. To check whether this association was independent of the level of other B-vitamins and thcy, we also adjusted for plasma concentrations of thcy, PLP and vitamin B12, and vitamin B supplement use. This resulted in an RR for T2 versus T1 of 0.45 (95% CI: 0.11, 1.92) and an RR for T3 versus T1 of 0.22 (95% CI: 0.04, 1.32). Thus, the RR estimates did not change, however, the CIs widened. The adjusted (model 2, Table 3) RR for each 5 nmol/l increase in plasma folate concentration was 0.16 (95% CI: 0.03, 0.78) in women. After multiple adjustment, we observed a statistically non-significant positive association between higher plasma folate levels and higher risk of CHD mortality in men. As this was unexpected, we compared the characteristics of male cases in T3 with those in T1 and T2. Cases in T3 having a lower concentration of thcy and total cholesterol were less often smokers and had higher HDL cholesterol levels. Only their systolic and diastolic blood pressures were somewhat higher compared with men in T1. Thus, in general they were healthy cases which may explain the higher RR after correction for CHD risk factors. The adjusted RR for each 5 nmol/l increase in folate concentration in men was 1.41 (95% CI: 0.76, 2.63). We observed no statistically significant associations between plasma PLP and plasma vitamin B12, and incidence of CHD mortality in men as well as women. The adjusted RR for each 10 nmol/l increase in plasma PLP concentration in men and women was 1.03 (95% CI: 0.99, 1.07), and for each 50 pmol/l increase in vitamin B12 concentration the adjusted RR was 0.99 (95% CI: 0.85, 1.16). Adjusting our multivariate models for education, physical activity, alcohol consumption, and BMI did not lead to other conclusions. Additional exclusion of subjects who reported diabetes at baseline also did not materially change our results, but only affected the power of our analyses. For example, in women the RR for each 5 nmol/l increase in plasma folate concentration changed to 0.21 (95% CI: 0.04, 1.00). 4. Discussion In this prospective study, we found no statistically significant association between the plasma thcy concentration and the incidence of CHD mortality. We found a significant inverse association between a higher plasma folate concentration and the risk of CHD mortality in women only. Plasma PLP and vitamin B12 concentrations were not associated with the incidence of CHD. Several methodological factors might have contributed to an underestimation of any true effects. Firstly,

6 374 A. de Bree et al. / Atherosclerosis 166 (2003) 369/377 Table 3 RRs and 95% CIs of tertiles of the concentration of thcy, and B-vitamins in relation to CHD mortality in Dutch men and women aged 20/59 years examined in 1987/1991 Men (n379) Women (n353) T1 T2 T3 P for trend T1 T2 T3 P for trend Mean a plasma thcy (mmol/l) No. of cases Percentage RR model 1 b % CI 0.31, , , , 7.34 RR model 2 c % CI 0.31, , , , 8.62 Mean a plasma folate (nmol/l) No. of cases Percentage RR model 1 b % CI 0.43, , , , 0.85 RR model 2 c % CI 0.50, , , , 0.87 Mean a plasma PLP (nmol/l) No. of cases Percentage RR model 1 b % CI 0.18, , , , 1.36 RR model 2 c % CI 0.37, , , , 2.63 Mean a plasma vitamin B12 (pmol/l) No. of cases Percentage RR model 1 b % CI 0.39, , , , 2.24 RR model 2 c % CI 0.30, , , , 3.74 a Geometric mean. b Adjusted for age and study center. c Adjusted for age, study center, HDL cholesterol, total cholesterol, hypertension, creatinine, and smoking. due to the fact that this study was not designed to measure the thcy concentration, whole blood was not cooled or centrifuged within 1 h after drawing. This could have led to an increase in the thcy concentration in the blood samples, which is /0.6 mmol/l per hour, independently of baseline thcy concentration [34]. Yet, the estimated extraneous variation introduced by this so-called false increase is small compared to the interindividual variation in thcy levels. Secondly, our plasma samples were stored at /20 8C for a maximum period of 14 years. Although plasma concentrations of thcy [35/37] and vitamin B12 and PLP [38] remain stable, folate levels decline in a systematic manner [38]. Nevertheless, our folate concentration data were probably suitable to study associations since the Spearman correlation and the regression coefficient for the relations between concentrations of plasma folate and thcy in this study were similar to those in our large Dutch cross-sectional study in which all blood samples were centrifuged within 1 h after drawing and were predominantly stored at /80 8C for /6 years [34]. Finally, like most prospective studies we measured our biochemical parameters only once. Due to measurement errors and within-person fluctuations in blood parameters, a single measurement may underestimate the magnitude of the RR [39]. It seems unlikely that the above-described methodological factors are mainly responsible for the weak association between the thcy concentration and CHD in the present study. Despite the fact that we suffered from a diminished statistical power, after the exclusion of subjects who reported a history of CVD, the RR for each 5 mmol/l increment in thcy concentration for men and women together (1.03, 95% CI: 0.83, 1.29) indicates that in our population the relation between the thcy concentration and CHD mortality is weak. The explanation for a weak association between thcy and CHD could lie in the proposed mechanism of action of an elevated thcy level; it might be a short-term risk marker, which in the presence of other CHD risk factors promotes CHD [3]. Evidence that an elevated thcy level is a short-term marker is provided by data of the

7 A. de Bree et al. / Atherosclerosis 166 (2003) 369/ Physicians Health Study. After 5 years of follow-up, a significant increased risk of CHD was found in men with elevated thcy levels [11], however, extending the follow-up to 7.5 years yielded a non-significant RR [27]. Two other studies also observed a stronger relation between the thcy concentration and the risk of CHD mortality [23] and between the thcy concentration and total CVD mortality [14] during the first few years of follow-up. Evidence that elevated thcy levels may in particular promote CHD under conditions predisposing to CHD comes from prospective studies, which consistently show that an increased thcy level is a risk factor for cardiovascular events (among which CHD) and total mortality in subjects with an increased CHD risk [10,19,40 /47]. Furthermore, of the five prospective studies with elderly populations (average age/60 years) [7,10,13,14,23], only one [23] did not show a clear significant association between the thcy concentration and CHD. As in elderly populations, the number of subjects with silent, pre-clinical CHD may be larger than in younger subjects. These findings are inline with the hypothesis that an elevated thcy concentration triggers an acute event in high-risk populations. Nevertheless, these results could also indicate that an elevated thcy concentration is a marker of pre-clinical CHD. Whether an elevated thcy concentration was a shortterm predictor of CHD mortality could not be investigated in our study population as the number of fatal CHD cases in the first 5 years of follow-up was too small. Yet our data supported the suggestion that raised thcy levels might trigger an event in high-risk subjects, as the RR of CHD mortality per 5 mmol/l increment in thcy concentration in subjects with CVD at baseline (n/89) was 1.58 (95% CI: 0.81, 3.09). In summary, the fact that we studied relatively young subjects, free of baseline CHD could be an explanation for the observed weak association between the thcy concentration and CHD. This result is generally inline with other prospective studies with subjects not selected for their risk of CHD [7/23]. Based on most of the above studies, Ueland et al. [48] recently calculated a pooled odds ratio for each 5 mmol/l increase in thcy concentration of 1.20 (95% CI: 1.14, 1.25). Our estimate for each 5 mmol/l increase in thcy concentration (1.03, 95% CI: 0.83, 1.29) revealed a much lower RR, but the two estimates do not differ statistically (beta Ueland / 0.18, beta present study /0.03, difference in beta estimates/0.15; the standard error of this difference qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (SE b1 ) 2 (SE b2 ) 2 0:18; the test statistic (b 1 b 2 )=SE b1 b 2 ; which follows a Student s t-distribution equals 0.82, with a P-value of 0.2). We found that high folate concentrations were associated with a significant decrease in RR of CHD mortality in women only. Although the statistical power of this analysis was small, the result is inline with the results of Morrison et al. [24]. Other studies that investigated plasma folate concentration in relation to CHD observed inverse relations in men as well as women [25], or in men only [26]. Two studies did not find significant associations [16,27], although the risk estimate was compatible with the hypothesis that high folate levels might contribute to the protection of CHD. In addition, prospective studies that investigated the relation between folate status and all CVD as endpoints showed a beneficial effect of higher folate levels [49 /51]. Thus, it is not unlikely that folate might have a protective role in the development of CHD. The concentration of the other two B-vitamins that were investigated in this study, plasma PLP and vitamin B12, did not show a relation with CHD. Evidence from previous prospective studies is not entirely consistent but suggests that the PLP concentration may be inversely associated with CHD [16], although not always statistically significant [27]. In this study, the simple adjusted models suggested an inverse association between PLP levels and the risk of CHD. However, this disappeared after correction for traditional CHD risk factors. The null finding with the plasma vitamin B12 concentration agrees with that found in the ARIC study [16]. In conclusion, we found that elevated thcy levels are not a major risk factor for CHD in a population sample of Dutch subjects below the age of 60 years and free of CVD at baseline. Randomized trials are needed to clarify the complex relations between plasma concentrations of thcy and B-vitamins, and CHD. Acknowledgements This work was financially supported by a grant from the Netherlands Heart Foundation (Grant No ). Dr. H.J. Blom is established investigator of the Netherlands Heart Foundation (Grant No. D97.021). We thank A. de Graaf-Hess for her excellent technical assistance with the thcy analyses. In addition, we are indebted to Dr. J. Selhub for the folate and vitamin B12 analyses. The field workers of the Municipal Health Services in Amsterdam, Doetinchem, and Maastricht are thanked for their important contribution to the data collection of this study. Furthermore, we are grateful to Mrs. E. den Hoedt of the National Institute of Public Health and the Environment for help with the mortality follow-up, Mr. J. Hoogenboezem from Statistics Netherlands for providing data on causes of death, and Mr. P. de Wolf from Statistics Netherlands for support at the onsite facilities.

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