Behavioral Biology and Obesity
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1 Behavioral Biology and Obesity Trenton G. Smith Assistant Professor School of Economic Sciences Washington State University 27 November 2009 Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 1
2 Introduction: Obesity and Material Constraints The world is getting fatter. Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 2
3 Introduction: Obesity and Material Constraints The world is getting fatter. Research into causes has largely focused on conventional wisdom that increasingly sedentary lifestyles and/or changes in dietary quality are to blame. Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 2
4 Introduction: Obesity and Material Constraints The world is getting fatter. Research into causes has largely focused on conventional wisdom that increasingly sedentary lifestyles and/or changes in dietary quality are to blame. In economic perspective, these explanations reduce to price (of calories, of fat, of physical exercise...) and income effects (poverty, wealth), perhaps conditioned on information (nutrition education, food labels, marketing...). Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 2
5 Introduction: Obesity and Material Constraints The world is getting fatter. Research into causes has largely focused on conventional wisdom that increasingly sedentary lifestyles and/or changes in dietary quality are to blame. In economic perspective, these explanations reduce to price (of calories, of fat, of physical exercise...) and income effects (poverty, wealth), perhaps conditioned on information (nutrition education, food labels, marketing...). This lecture will instead consider obesity in naturalistic perspective, building on the biologist s notion that fattening in humans and other animals originated as a response to starvation risk. Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 2
6 Introduction: Obesity and Material Constraints The world is getting fatter. Research into causes has largely focused on conventional wisdom that increasingly sedentary lifestyles and/or changes in dietary quality are to blame. In economic perspective, these explanations reduce to price (of calories, of fat, of physical exercise...) and income effects (poverty, wealth), perhaps conditioned on information (nutrition education, food labels, marketing...). This lecture will instead consider obesity in naturalistic perspective, building on the biologist s notion that fattening in humans and other animals originated as a response to starvation risk. Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 2
7 Endocrinology of Obesity: Leptin Leptin-less Mice Siberian Hamsters Willow Tits Clinical symptoms of starvation: hyperphagia decreased body temperature decreased physical activity diminished immune function infertility Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 3
8 Endocrinology of Obesity: Leptin Leptin-less Mice Siberian Hamsters Willow Tits Clinical symptoms of starvation: hyperphagia decreased body temperature decreased physical activity diminished immune function infertility The obese-type mouse lacks leptin, behaves as if it were starving. References: Zhang et al. 1994, Montague et al. 1997, Farooqi et al Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 3
9 Endocrinology of Obesity: Leptin Leptin-less Mice Siberian Hamsters Willow Tits Clinical symptoms of starvation: hyperphagia decreased body temperature decreased physical activity diminished immune function infertility The obese-type mouse lacks leptin, behaves as if it were starving. The effect of leptin is the same, of course, in humans. References: Zhang et al. 1994, Montague et al. 1997, Farooqi et al Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 3
10 Leptin-less Mice Siberian Hamsters Willow Tits Seasonal Fattening: Siberian Hamsters Many foraging animals (e.g., the Siberian hamster) fatten seasonally. The key environmental trigger appears to be photoperiod. References: Whybrow 1988, Allen et al. 1993, Mercer et al Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 4
11 Leptin-less Mice Siberian Hamsters Willow Tits Seasonal Fattening: Siberian Hamsters Many foraging animals (e.g., the Siberian hamster) fatten seasonally. The key environmental trigger appears to be photoperiod. In humans, seasonal affective disorder characterized by depression, hypersomnia, hyperphagia, and weight gain. Most commonly prescribed treatment: exposure to artificial light. Conversely, summer depression causes insomnia, decreased appetite, and weight loss. References: Whybrow 1988, Allen et al. 1993, Mercer et al Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 4
12 Leptin-less Mice Siberian Hamsters Willow Tits Social Rank and Obesity: Willow Tits In natural settings, willow tits fall into stable binary dominance hierarchies that determine access to food supply. References: Ekman & Lilliendahl 1993, Clark & Ekman 1995, Brodin & Lundborg 2003 Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 5
13 Leptin-less Mice Siberian Hamsters Willow Tits Social Rank and Obesity: Willow Tits In natural settings, willow tits fall into stable binary dominance hierarchies that determine access to food supply. In spite of restricted access to food supply, subordinate tits typically fatter than their dominant counterparts. References: Ekman & Lilliendahl 1993, Clark & Ekman 1995, Brodin & Lundborg 2003 Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 5
14 Leptin-less Mice Siberian Hamsters Willow Tits Social Rank and Obesity: Willow Tits In natural settings, willow tits fall into stable binary dominance hierarchies that determine access to food supply. In spite of restricted access to food supply, subordinate tits typically fatter than their dominant counterparts. Theoretical explanation: fattening is an optimal response to increased risk of starvation. References: Ekman & Lilliendahl 1993, Clark & Ekman 1995, Brodin & Lundborg 2003 Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 5
15 Leptin-less Mice Siberian Hamsters Willow Tits Social Rank and Obesity: Willow Tits In natural settings, willow tits fall into stable binary dominance hierarchies that determine access to food supply. In spite of restricted access to food supply, subordinate tits typically fatter than their dominant counterparts. Theoretical explanation: fattening is an optimal response to increased risk of starvation. Interesting corollary: if food becomes scarce enough, direction of the gradient reverses. References: Ekman & Lilliendahl 1993, Clark & Ekman 1995, Brodin & Lundborg 2003 Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 5
16 Leptin-less Mice Siberian Hamsters Willow Tits Social Rank and Obesity: Willow Tits In natural settings, willow tits fall into stable binary dominance hierarchies that determine access to food supply. In spite of restricted access to food supply, subordinate tits typically fatter than their dominant counterparts. Theoretical explanation: fattening is an optimal response to increased risk of starvation. Interesting corollary: if food becomes scarce enough, direction of the gradient reverses. Similar patterns observed in humans and other primates. References: Ekman & Lilliendahl 1993, Clark & Ekman 1995, Brodin & Lundborg 2003 Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 5
17 Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Given the parallels between animal and human fattening, a natural question arises: Might variation in material risk drive incidence of obesity in the modern world? Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 6
18 Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Given the parallels between animal and human fattening, a natural question arises: Might variation in material risk drive incidence of obesity in the modern world? Risk is difficult to measure, and it is not clear a priori which environmental indicators of impending scarcity will be most important empirically (but: anthropology provides clues). Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 6
19 Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Given the parallels between animal and human fattening, a natural question arises: Might variation in material risk drive incidence of obesity in the modern world? Risk is difficult to measure, and it is not clear a priori which environmental indicators of impending scarcity will be most important empirically (but: anthropology provides clues). Nevertheless, many studies have reported a positive relationship between obesity (or related health problems) and various forms of economic insecurity. Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 6
20 Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Risk driving fattening...? poverty & obesity (Drewnowski 2004) inequality & health (Wilkinson & Pickett 2006, Gottschalk & Moffitt 2009) social status & health (Marmot 2004) social networks & obesity (Christakis & Fowler 2007) affluence & self-control (Offer 2006) stress -related eating (Greeno & Wing 1994, Laitinen et al. 2002) food insecurity & obesity (Townsend et al. 2001) financial insecurity & weight gain (Gerace & George 1996) job insecurity & nicotine (Smith & Barnes 2009) job insecurity & weight gain (Morris et al. 1992, Hannerz et al. 2004, Smith et al. 2009) Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 7
21 Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Risk driving fattening...? poverty & obesity (Drewnowski 2004) inequality & health (Wilkinson & Pickett 2006, Gottschalk & Moffitt 2009) social status & health (Marmot 2004) social networks & obesity (Christakis & Fowler 2007) affluence & self-control (Offer 2006) stress -related eating (Greeno & Wing 1994, Laitinen et al. 2002) food insecurity & obesity (Townsend et al. 2001) financial insecurity & weight gain (Gerace & George 1996) job insecurity & nicotine (Smith & Barnes 2009) job insecurity & weight gain (Morris et al. 1992, Hannerz et al. 2004, Smith et al. 2009) Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 7
22 Why the Poor Get Fat Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Does economic insecurity (threat of catastrophic income loss) cause weight gain? (Smith, Stoddard, & Barnes 2009) Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 8
23 Why the Poor Get Fat Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Does economic insecurity (threat of catastrophic income loss) cause weight gain? (Smith, Stoddard, & Barnes 2009) Data: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth national (U.S.) sample of 2,500 working-age men interviewed annually or bi-annually variables: height/weight, weekly employment histories, annual household income, county of residence, other demographics. Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 8
24 Why the Poor Get Fat Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Does economic insecurity (threat of catastrophic income loss) cause weight gain? (Smith, Stoddard, & Barnes 2009) Data: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth national (U.S.) sample of 2,500 working-age men interviewed annually or bi-annually variables: height/weight, weekly employment histories, annual household income, county of residence, other demographics. Measures of economic insecurity: probability of job loss number of 50% income drops dispersion of income path probability of poverty (received inheritance) (health insurance) Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 8
25 Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Why the Poor Get Fat: A Natural Experiment Problem: We observe both economic (employment, income...) and health (12-year weight gain) outcomes. Does the former cause the latter? Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 9
26 Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Why the Poor Get Fat: A Natural Experiment Problem: We observe both economic (employment, income...) and health (12-year weight gain) outcomes. Does the former cause the latter? Two issues: reverse causation (e.g., discrimination against the obese) unobserved personal characteristics (e.g., laziness causes both weight gain and job loss) Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 9
27 Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Why the Poor Get Fat: A Natural Experiment Problem: We observe both economic (employment, income...) and health (12-year weight gain) outcomes. Does the former cause the latter? Two issues: reverse causation (e.g., discrimination against the obese) unobserved personal characteristics (e.g., laziness causes both weight gain and job loss) Our approach: two-stage least squares 1 use local unemployment rates to predict insecurity 2 regress weight gain on predicted insecurity Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 9
28 Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Why the Poor Get Fat: A Natural Experiment Problem: We observe both economic (employment, income...) and health (12-year weight gain) outcomes. Does the former cause the latter? Two issues: reverse causation (e.g., discrimination against the obese) unobserved personal characteristics (e.g., laziness causes both weight gain and job loss) Our approach: two-stage least squares 1 use local unemployment rates to predict insecurity 2 regress weight gain on predicted insecurity Local labor market conditions provide a natural experiment; result can be interpreted as causal (subject to identification assumption). Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 9
29 Why the Poor Get Fat: Results Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Effect of on Body Weight (lbs.) in Men, Probability 61.75** 111.8*** 68.76*** of Job Loss (31.2) (23.6) (22.2) 50% Income 5.445* Drops, (3.15) R 2 on Income *** Trend, (7.17) Probability of Poverty (34.70) Inheritance *** *** (in $1000) (0.008) (0.007) Health Insurance (6.41) N R Robust standard errors (adjusted for within-state clustering) in parentheses. * significant at 10%, ** significant at 5%, *** significant at 1% See Smith et al. (2009) for details. Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 10
30 Obesity Rates in the OECD Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Smith & McCluskey (WIP) estimate fixed-effects model of obesity rates in 17 OECD countries between 1990 and Obesity data from OECD Health, adjusted for demographics and self-reporting Preliminary results: labor market variables have more explanatory power than GDP, food prices, or dietary quality Overall explanatory power is weak Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 11
31 Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Table 5: Fixed Effects Obesity Rate (U.S.= 0.0%) Fixed Effects United States New Zealand England Australia Finland Spain Czech Republic Netherlands Canada Denmark Iceland Austria Sweden France Italy Switzerland Japan Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 12
32 Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Table 3: Obesity Rankings, Obesity Rate (%) Rank Difference Difference Iceland New Zealand United States England Spain Australia Finland Denmark France Austria Netherlands Sweden Italy Switzerland Canada Japan Czech Republic Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 13
33 Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Privatization and Obesity in the OECD, United States Australia England New Zealand Annual Growth in Obesity (%) Iceland Canada France Netherlands Denmark Switzerland Sweden Finland Spain Italy Japan Austria Revenue from Sales of State-Owned Enterprises (% of 1985 GDP) Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 14
34 America s Great Risk Shift Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Is the U.S. an anomaly? Has the rise in obesity been accompanied by a rise in economic insecurity? Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 15
35 America s Great Risk Shift Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Is the U.S. an anomaly? Has the rise in obesity been accompanied by a rise in economic insecurity? Some likely culprits: 1974-present Health insurance subscriptions down 1979-present Rising income instability 1981-present Pensions: from pooled to individual risk 1994-present NAFTA and outsourcing Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 15
36 America s Great Risk Shift Epidemiology Why the Poor Get Fat Fat Countries Is the U.S. an anomaly? Has the rise in obesity been accompanied by a rise in economic insecurity? Some likely culprits: 1974-present Health insurance subscriptions down 1979-present Rising income instability 1981-present Pensions: from pooled to individual risk 1994-present NAFTA and outsourcing Though some point to a dramatic rise in fast food restaurants over this time period... Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 15
37 Dietary Quality: A Conjecture Conjecture on Dietary Quality Conclusion Every woman knows that carbohydrate is fattening. Passmore & Swindells (1963) What about dietary quality? Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 16
38 Dietary Quality: A Conjecture Conjecture on Dietary Quality Conclusion Every woman knows that carbohydrate is fattening. Passmore & Swindells (1963) What about dietary quality? Consider nature of famine foods: primarily carbohydrate (root vegetables, leaves, seeds) Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 16
39 Dietary Quality: A Conjecture Conjecture on Dietary Quality Conclusion Every woman knows that carbohydrate is fattening. Passmore & Swindells (1963) What about dietary quality? Consider nature of famine foods: primarily carbohydrate (root vegetables, leaves, seeds) Consider metabolic effects of carbohydrate-rich foods: insulinemia cellular starvation response appetite stimulation, lipogenesis Refs: Irvine 1952, Ludwig 2002, Taubes 2007, Wurtman & Wurtman 1998 Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 16
40 Dietary Quality: A Conjecture Conjecture on Dietary Quality Conclusion Every woman knows that carbohydrate is fattening. Passmore & Swindells (1963) What about dietary quality? Consider nature of famine foods: primarily carbohydrate (root vegetables, leaves, seeds) Consider metabolic effects of carbohydrate-rich foods: insulinemia cellular starvation response appetite stimulation, lipogenesis Consider: carbohydrate cravings coincident w/sad, PMS, nicotine withdrawal. Refs: Irvine 1952, Ludwig 2002, Taubes 2007, Wurtman & Wurtman 1998 Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 16
41 Dietary Quality: A Conjecture Conjecture on Dietary Quality Conclusion Every woman knows that carbohydrate is fattening. Passmore & Swindells (1963) What about dietary quality? Consider nature of famine foods: primarily carbohydrate (root vegetables, leaves, seeds) Consider metabolic effects of carbohydrate-rich foods: insulinemia cellular starvation response appetite stimulation, lipogenesis Consider: carbohydrate cravings coincident w/sad, PMS, nicotine withdrawal. Refs: Irvine 1952, Ludwig 2002, Taubes 2007, Wurtman & Wurtman which together suggest economic insecurity might cause weight gain in part by inducing changes in dietary composition. Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 16
42 Summary & Conclusion Conjecture on Dietary Quality Conclusion The many parallels between human and animal fattening suggest a deep-rooted sensitivity to risk. Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 17
43 Summary & Conclusion Conjecture on Dietary Quality Conclusion The many parallels between human and animal fattening suggest a deep-rooted sensitivity to risk. The insecurity hypothesis is broadly consistent with the incidence of obesity in human populations. Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 17
44 Summary & Conclusion Conjecture on Dietary Quality Conclusion The many parallels between human and animal fattening suggest a deep-rooted sensitivity to risk. The insecurity hypothesis is broadly consistent with the incidence of obesity in human populations. An important caveat: the mechanisms by which economic insecurity affects body weight need not include conscious consideration of objective risk. Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 17
45 Summary & Conclusion Conjecture on Dietary Quality Conclusion The many parallels between human and animal fattening suggest a deep-rooted sensitivity to risk. The insecurity hypothesis is broadly consistent with the incidence of obesity in human populations. An important caveat: the mechanisms by which economic insecurity affects body weight need not include conscious consideration of objective risk. Rising obesity could be due in part to changes in the economic environment that have increased idiosyncratic material risks faced by households. Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 17
46 Summary & Conclusion Conjecture on Dietary Quality Conclusion The many parallels between human and animal fattening suggest a deep-rooted sensitivity to risk. The insecurity hypothesis is broadly consistent with the incidence of obesity in human populations. An important caveat: the mechanisms by which economic insecurity affects body weight need not include conscious consideration of objective risk. Rising obesity could be due in part to changes in the economic environment that have increased idiosyncratic material risks faced by households. It might even be possible that shrinking public expenditures have something to do with our expanding waistlines... Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 17
47 Conjecture on Dietary Quality Conclusion Worries go down better with soup than without. Jewish proverb Trent Smith Behavioral Biology & Obesity 18
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