The structure of yutori and its functions

Transcription

1 Japanese Psychological Research 2001, Volume 43, No. 4, Special Issue: Consumer behavior The structure of yutori and its functions MIYAKO YAMASHITA Graduate School of Human Sciences, Osaka University, Yamada-oka, Suita, Osaka , Japan RYUICHIRO YAGI International Economy and Work Institute, Kitahana-higashi, chuo-ku, Osaka , Japan HIDEO FURUKAWA Faculty of Intercultural Communication, Ryukoku University, Seta, Otsu, Shiga , Japan Abstract: A scale for measuring yutori was developed, and then used to examine the effectiveness of efforts made by companies to promote yutori among their employees. Exploratory factor analysis revealed the following eight factors in the structure of yutori: economic wealth, free time, environmental amenities, competence, contentment, enjoyment, challenge, and behavioral freedom. Covariance structure analysis suggested that yutori was not only related to objective, material measures, such as time and economic sufficiency, but also included very subjective psychological concepts. An examination of the systems and measures provided by Japanese companies to promote yutori found a low correlation between ratings of the effectiveness of such systems and measures, and employees scores on the eight yutori factors, even between systems and measures for reducing working hours and the free time factor, for example. No effective systems and measures for the promotion of yutori were observed. There is a need for a psychological perspective in studies of the promotion of yutori. Key words: yutori, psychological well-being, control, systems and measures. The Japanese economy developed rapidly after the Second World War, to 10% of the world s gross national product. Financially, Japan has attained a standard of living at which most people can obtain at least minimum satisfaction. Many Japanese people, however, do not feel real fulfillment and satisfaction in their daily lives. No yutori can be found in our daily life is an expression often used among Japanese people. The word yutori has various meanings, not all concerned with financial matters. According to the Japanese language dictionary Kojien (Shinmura, 1998), the definition of yutori is a state with sufficiency and ease. Yutori covers a broad concept which is applicable to various aspects of Japanese daily life, such as finance and time. The concept of yutori is peculiar to Japanese, in terms of a widely applicable meaning, and is difficult to translate concisely. In Japan, having yutori is generally regarded as a state of psychological well-being and positive perspective. Labor, administration and management fields have focused on yutori as a goal of reform policy. For instance, a reduction in working hours is a primary condition for life with yutori, according to the preface of the White paper on the national lifestyle, fiscal year 1989 (Economic Planning Agency, 1989), which was issued during the period of the bubble economy. This 2001 Japanese Psychological Association. Published by Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA.

2 226 M. Yamishita, R. Yagi, and H. Furukawa emphasizes a need for free time. Yutori remained important when the Japanese economy declined and stagnated in the 1990s, and yutori in education was emphasized. In addition, yutori and peace in life was the main theme in the National survey on lifestyle preferences in 1999 (Economic Planning Agency, National Lifestyle Bureau, 1999). The prefatory note to this survey reviewed the previous decade in Japan as follows: In Japan, the nation has longed for yutori in various aspects of daily life as the growth of the economy and increase in individual income became conspicuous after the Second World War. The Bubble economy time in the late 1980s especially prompted a high desire for yutori. It was at that time that not only measures for a reduction in working hours were agreed to be a significant issue, but awareness of housing problems in big cities and long hours of commuting and other commuting issues were also prominently discussed. Although yutori is obviously of great importance to Japanese people, its essence and concept have not been considered sufficiently. Although people are provided with the same amount of time, the amount of yutori achieved differs between individuals. Yutori is a subjective concept in the extreme. Despite the need for consideration and use of a psychological approach to systems and measures aimed at enhancing yutori, no attempt to use a psychological approach has been made until now. Certainly, psychologists in Japan have mentioned the feeling of yutori. However, these were mainly personal opinions, not based on empirical data (e.g., Doi, 1983, 1985; Okamoto, 1989). Yutori was classified into five categories in the National survey on lifestyle preferences (Economic Planning Agency, National Lifestyle Bureau, 1990, 1999) as follows: economic, time, space, psychological, and general. Unfortunately, this was an a priori classification. A study that focuses on how people perceive yutori and that empirically examines it using measurable variables has not been attempted. While Japanese companies have introduced a variety of systems and measures to promote yutori among their employees, such as a reduction in working hours, an examination of what kind of system or measure produces yutori has not been undertaken, owing to the lack of an accurate means of determining yutori. Although the Japan Productivity Center (1990), which is a respected Japanese thinktank, has researched yutori, yutori itself was not measured in that research. The identification of measurable variables along with a clarification of the concept is necessary in order to search for precise conditions which promote yutori. This paper examines how systems and measures promoting yutori have influenced employees in Japanese companies. The structure of yutori is also analyzed. The development of a measuring scale and an examination of its validity are first described. Development of a yutori scale, and an examination of its validity Development of a yutori scale Two hundred employees of private enterprises participated in a survey on the meaning of yutori, so that a yutori measuring scale could be devised. Free answers were given to questions such as What is yutori for you? and When do you feel yutori? In addition, brainstorming on the same subject was conducted with groups of employees. The results were classified using the KJ method, 1 and 50 items were generated for a yutori measuring scale, responses to which were on a seven-point Likert scale. An exploratory factor analysis was done using data collected from government and private enterprise employees (N = 272, 1990 data, see Table 2). This yielded the eight factors shown in Table 1 (cf. Furukawa, Yamashita, & Yagi, 1993; Yamashita, Furukawa, & Yagi, 1996). Psychological aspects of yutori such as enjoyment and challenge have been considered recently alongside the material aspects that normally tend to be emphasized, such as free 1 This method was devised by the anthropologist Jiro Kawakita, to sort legal data and information, in order to generate hypotheses.

3 The structure of yutori and its functions 227 Table 1. The eight yutori factors and examples of the 50 scale items Factor Free time: controllable and unaccounted time Economic wealth: disposable income and financial wealth Environmental amenities: beautiful and comfortable environment Competence: ability to perform effectively at work and so on Contentment: satisfaction concerning the home and so on Enjoyment: attitude of enjoying everyday life, sense of play Challenge: display of ambition or spirit of enterprise Behavioral freedom: tendency to behave without restriction I have enough vacation time I have my own free time I can take days off anytime Example items I am financially comfortable I have enough savings I don t have enough stable income a I am surrounded by a beautiful environment There are adequate public facilities (and amenities) around me I am satisfied with my working environment I am given sufficient systems and measures by my company I can deal with most things by myself I am doing well in my work I have confidence in myself There are too many things I don t know a I am mentally comfortable I live a fulfilled and satisfied life I am satisfied with my current life There are many things I cannot agree with a I have a playful mind I often put my job aside and go out to have fun I have a wide circle of friends and acquaintances I am always trying to improve myself I have a big goal in my life I am eager to start a new thing I can do things I want to do I can get whatever I want I go my own way I don t even try to do what I don t like a Reverse-scored items. time, economic wealth, and environmental amenities. Despite the scale comprising a wide variety of factors, the Cronbach s alpha coefficient for the whole scale of 50 items was.91, which is very high. Data collection for the 50 items comprising the eight factors was continuously conducted for seven years (from 1990 to 1997) with participation from workers, homemakers, and students (see Table 2). The collected data showed that the eight factors had universality and reliability (Furukawa, Yagi, & Yamashita, 1994; Yamashita, Yagi, & Furukawa, 2000). Next, a study examined how the concept of yutori was generally perceived in Japanese society. If yutori is defined as a state of

4 228 M. Yamishita, R. Yagi, and H. Furukawa Table 2. Outline of each sample Year Sample (research objective) N 1990 Workers University students (for deriving the yutori scale) Workers University students (for test-retest method) Married women (for homemaker research) Workers 1396 University students (for comparison with workers) 216 psychological well-being for Japanese people, the correlations between general yutori, as defined in the National survey on lifestyle preferences (Economic Planning Agency, National Lifestyle Bureau, 1990), and a subjective sense of well-being and life satisfaction, would be expected. In a reanalysis of 1993 data (see Table 2), the correlations were.42 and.55, respectively, which can be regarded as high. The findings confirmed that yutori plays a significant role in Japanese people s life. 2 Examination of the eight yutori factors Covariance structure analysis was performed to examine the causes and effects and factor validity among the eight factors. The SAS CALIS procedure was used for this analysis, with the 1992 data from workers (N = 351). Structure of a hypothetical model. The eight factors used to define yutori were broadly categorized into two groups as follows: material and objective factors (economic wealth, environmental amenities, free time); and psychological factors (contentment, enjoyment, challenge, behavioral freedom). It was assumed that the material factors would be primary and the psychological factors secondary (i.e., the presence of the material factors would be necessary conditions for production of the psychological factors). Not only the eight factors mentioned earlier but also general yutori were structured 2 The combined scores for I am very happy now and I enjoy my current life were used to measure a subjective sense of well-being, and the question How much are you satisfied with your life? was used to measure life satisfaction. into the hypothetical model. In addition, the objective indicators of individual annual income and monthly average number of extra hours of work were added to the hypothetical model for an examination of the criterion-related validity of economic wealth and free time. Results. Examination of several models showed that the model in Figure 1 was the best. The model fitted the data well, with a goodness-of-fit index (GFI) of.903, an adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI) of.871, and a root mean square residual (RMSR) of 3. Each arrow in the figure indicates a calculated path coefficient. Each path supports an observation that economic wealth, free time, environmental amenities, and competence provide fundamental conditions that affect contentment. The examination found that economic wealth in particular affected contentment directly. Contentment was the core factor of yutori in the model, therefore, while material factors such as free time, economic wealth, and environmental amenities acted in support. The findings indicated that the higher contentment people obtained, the more psychological factors, such as enjoyment, behavioral freedom, and challenge, were promoted. Time and economic factors contribute yutori because they enhance people s control of their environment. Therefore, a state of yutori is not only the result of material, objective factors that arise when the fundamental conditions are met, but it is also a subjective and psychological concept. Path coefficients from latent variables to observed variables of each yutori factor were all significant (p <.05), and factor loading

5 The structure of yutori and its functions 229 General yutori Annual income.31 Economic wealth Environmental amenities Free time Enjoyment.57 Challenge Extra working hours Competence Contentment Behavioral freedom Figure 1. Relationship between the eight yutori factors and general yutori. estimates were sufficiently high. The factor stability and divergent validity of each of the eight yutori factors were observed as well. The findings showed that annual income contributed to economic wealth but extra hours of work reduced free time. Thus, the findings confirmed the criterion-related validity of economic wealth and free time. Feeling of yutori and control Scores on the Locus of Control (LOC) scale and the yutori scale were compared in order to examine the concurrent validity of the latter, while also clarifying its nature. It was assumed that individuals with a high internal LOC would tend to feel that they controlled the environment around them. Although the LOC scale is generally regarded as measuring individual characteristics, a high correlation of all 50 items of the yutori measuring scale with internal LOC would be expected if the hypothesis that a part of yutori concerns control is accepted. If economic wealth and free time were necessary conditions for the psychological factors of yutori, such as contentment, a higher correlation between the LOC scale, in terms of the eight yutori factors, would be expected with psychological factors (e.g., enjoyment, contentment) than with objective factors (e.g., economic wealth, free time). Method University students (N = 451) participated in this study (the 1993 sample in Table 2). The LOC scale prepared by Kanbara, Higuchi, and Shimizu (1982) was employed. Six out of 18 items of the LOC scale which loaded on internal factors were combined as an internal score, and another six items which loaded on external factors were combined as an external score. Combined scores for the items in Table 1 were used for the eight yutori factors. First, a factor analysis was performed for the 50 yutori items to find the main variance of yutori. Next, a second-order factor analysis was done on the inter-factor correlation. The first second-order factor to be identified was the main variance of the eight yutori factors.

6 230 M. Yamishita, R. Yagi, and H. Furukawa Correlations between the factor scores of the first second-order factor, each of the eight yutori factors, and the LOC scale were analyzed. Results and discussion The correlation between the first second-order factor of the yutori scale and the LOC internal scores was.45, which is high. High correlations between LOC internal scores and the yutori scores for enjoyment and challenge were also found, at around.4. Correlations between internal scores and the other psychological yutori factors were.20 or higher. On the other hand, correlations between internal scores and the scores for the objective yutori factors, such as economic wealth and free time, were comparatively low. No yutori factors had a high correlation with LOC external scores. A high correlation between internal LOC and the first second-order factor of yutori supports the assumption that an essence of yutori is control. It was also found that psychological yutori factors such as enjoyment, challenge, and contentment were closely related to the internal scores, which indicates that the structure of yutori was appropriately clarified using the covariance structure analysis. Therefore, objective factors such as economic wealth, free time, and environmental amenities are fundamental conditions to support contentment, and control of the environment is enhanced when these conditions are met. It is then that a feeling of yutori expressed as enjoyment, challenge, and behavioral freedom is promoted. The examination therefore supports the validity and the function of the eight-factors structure. Next, an examination of the effectiveness of systems and measures seen in Japanese companies on a worker s consciousness of yutori was performed. Systems and measures in Japanese companies and yutori The second study focused on the effectiveness of systems and measures on the part Table 3. Correlations between the yutori scale factors and the LOC scale factors LOC factors Yutori scale factors Internal External Economic wealth Free time.18*.04* Environmental amenities *.03 Competence.29* * Contentment.26*.16* Challenge.39*.01* Enjoyment.41*.03* Behavioral freedom.24*.02 First second-order factor.45* * *p.05. of Japanese companies such as a five-day working week and reduced working hours in producing the feeling of yutori among their employees. Functional categories of systems and measures were rated as objective, independent variables. Employees subjective assessments of these systems and measures and of their own yutori were considered dependent variables. The study aimed to distinguish interactions between independent and dependent variables, using data collection in three separate steps, as shown in Figure 2. Method Procedure. In the first step, objective data regarding systems and measures, facilities and equipment were collected from companies (business offices), using questionnaires. The person in charge of human resources and labor at each company answered the questionnaire. In the second step, the subjective cognition data were collected; the employees questionnaires measured how employees acknowledged the current systems, measures and facilities that their companies provided. In the third step, the yutori scale was used to measure employees yutori. Sample. Data were collected in 1997 in cooperation with the Osaka Labor Relations Division. Participants (N = 1396) were those who lived or worked in Osaka, and the data

7 The structure of yutori and its functions First step 2. Second step 3. Third step Objective condition data Subjective cognition data Consciousness of yutori Questionnaires for companies Systems and measures in companies Answered by the person in charge of the labor section in each company Questionnaires for employees Subjective cognition items Answered by employees on functional conditions of the systems and measures Questionnaires for employees Eight yutori factors Answered by employees on yutori items Figure 2. Three-step structure of data collection. were collected through companies and labor unions which owned business offices in Osaka. A total of 75 companies participated, of a variety of types and size. Results and discussion Correlation coefficients were calculated for the objective (company) evaluations of systems and measures with the employees subjective evaluations, and for the latter with the eight yutori factors from the scale completed by employees (see Figure 3). There was a high correlation (.54) between Health-oriented facilities in the companies objective evaluations and the employees cognitions. However, the correlations between most of the other combinations of objective and subjective evaluations were approximately.20. There was a high correlation of.22 between Support of visitor facilities for physical training, culture, education, accommodation and the yutori factor environmental amenities. Most of the other correlation coefficients were low, as shown in Figure 3. For the environmental amenities factor, there were similar significant correlations with Systems and measures for increasing holidays and vacations (.18), Systems and measures for reducing working hours (.17), and Systems and measures for promoting fair treatment (.17). The better these systems and measures worked, the higher was the cognition of environmental amenities by employees. While many systems and measures gave or higher correlations with the competence and contentment factors, few systems and measures gave a high correlation with the enjoyment and challenge factors, which were unlikely to be targeted by companies systems and measures. Support of visitor facilities for physical training, culture, education, accommodation was the only measure that attained a correlation coefficient of over with these factors. Correlations between the free time factor and Systems and measures for reducing working hours (), and Systems and measures for increasing holidays and vacations () were significant but low. Although Goal management system () and Systems and measures for developing ability and individuality () were originally systems to enhance the motivation of employees, the correlations between the competence factor and these systems were low. The overall correlation between objective evaluations of the systems and measures by companies and the cognition of employees was significant. While employees evaluations of some of the systems and measures were high, correlations with the eight yutori factors, overall, were somewhat low. The typical systems and measures for time reduction that had been introduced to produce yutori generally received a poor degree of cognition from employees and failed to promote yutori. General discussion This paper has outlined the development of the yutori scale from studies on the structure of yutori conducted over the last decade. It

8 232 M. Yamishita, R. Yagi, and H. Furukawa Companies Employees Systems and measures for developing ability and individuality.25 Free time Systems and measures for increasing holidays and vacations.25 Systems and measures for promoting fair treatment Contentment Wage system based on ability and achievement Competence.27 Goal management system.23 Systems and measures for reducing working hours.22 Support of visitor facilities for physical training, culture, education and accommodation Economic wealth Environmental amenities.03 Mutual benefit system Behavioral freedom.07 General loan system Enjoyment.09 Health-oriented facilities Challenge Figure 3. Correlations between objective evaluations of companies systems and measures for promoting yutori, employees subjective cognition of those systems and measures, and employees scores on the eight factors. has also examined the effectiveness of systems and measures adopted by companies in the promotion yutori among employees. Covariance structure analysis supported the observation that the following eight yutori structure factors can be broadly classified into material objective factors and psychological factors, respectively, from the functional

9 The structure of yutori and its functions 233 point of view: economic wealth, free time, and environmental amenities; and competence, contentment, enjoyment, challenge, and behavioral freedom. The material factors economic wealth and free time contributed to a feeling of yutori by enhancing an individual s perceived controlability over his/her environment. However, a state of yutori was promoted not only by material objectiveness, such as time and economic sufficiency, but also by a subjective psychological conception created when these fundamental conditions were met. A high correlation with the internal LOC scale shows that a notion of control over one s environment influences one s feeling of yutori. The study demonstrated a high correlation between a sense of well-being and life satisfaction, and general yutori and contentment (Yamashita et al., 1996). It also indicated that the degree of control played a significant role in the psychological well-being of Japanese people. If yutori is a psychological concept of environmental control, then the application of systems and measures which target the psychological aspects of yutori is required. Lack of this type of perspective, however, has been observed in Japan, and most studies of yutori have tended to focus on topics such as how to use time (e.g., Yano & Research Institute for Advancement of Living Standards, 1998). Such studies may well discourage organizations attempting to promote yutori. The studies here revealed that systems and measures in Japanese companies do not effectively promote yutori. The correlations between ratings of the companies systems and measures for promoting yutori and the eight yutori factors were generally low, despite higher positive correlations between some systems and measures and the environmental amenities factor. Even the correlation between systems and measures for reducing working hours and the free time factor was low. Covariance structure analysis supported the observation that the amount of extra working hours affected free time. In other words, high material objective factors such as free time tended to be manipulated by external factors with ease. Although systems for reducing working hours were the core measures for promoting yutori by organizations, no high correlation between systems and measures for reducing working hours and free time was observed. This suggests that the current systems and measures for promoting yutori need to be reviewed. A relation between yutori and environmental control showed that promoting working conditions with more flexibility, instead of reducing working hours, would successfully increase the free time factor of yutori. Constant measurement with consideration of psychological aspects reported in the studies was expected to identify systems and measures for effective yutori promotion. The results reported in this paper demonstrate that Japanese public administrations and companies should consider psychological aspects and make good use of psychological studies in order to develop systems for promoting yutori. The two issues deserve further attention. The first concerns a trait aspect of yutori. Material and psychological aspects can be found in the eight yutori factors, as mentioned earlier. Material aspects, such as economic wealth, are regarded as situational factors, and psychological aspects, such as contentment and enjoyment, are regarded as trait factors. Not only situational aspects, such as material environmental conditions, but personal aspects, such as individual cognitive or psychological style, can be observed in yutori. Just how much trait aspects influence a general feeling of yutori should be a subject for future study. The second issue concerns the universality of the concept of yutori. As mentioned earlier, yutori has been the focus of attention since the 1980s, before the collapse of the bubble economy, when the Japanese economy was in peak condition and the demand for work increased. Workaholics was the name given in Western countries to describe the many Japanese people who worked remarkably long hours. Yutori was also the subject of study during times of Japanese recession, after the collapse of the bubble economy. These studies mostly supported the validity of yutori during

10 234 M. Yamishita, R. Yagi, and H. Furukawa that time. Some questions, however, arise as to the effect of the concept of yutori. One is whether this concept will remain valid in the future, in postindustrial and aging societies. Another question is whether the concept of yutori is particular to Japan. Although an English translation of the word yutori is not feasible, a measurement of each aspect of yutori measured by the eight yutori factors could be undertaken. A cross-cultural study on the universality of yutori is expected in the near future. References Doi, T. (1983). Yutori. Loisir, 8, (In Japanese.) Doi, T. (1985). Omote to ura. Tokyo: Kobundo. (The Anatomy of self Tokyo: Kodansha International Ltd.) Economic Planning Agency (1989). White paper on the national lifestyle, fiscal year Tokyo: Printing Bureau, Ministry of Finance. (In Japanese.) Economic Planning Agency, National Lifestyle Bureau (1990). National survey on lifestyle preferences, fiscal year Tokyo: Printing Bureau, Ministry of Finance. (In Japanese.) Economic Planning Agency, National Lifestyle Bureau (1999). National survey on lifestyle preferences, fiscal year Tokyo: Printing Bureau, Ministry of Finance. (In Japanese with English summary.) Furukawa, H., Yamashita, M., & Yagi, R. (1993). The structure of yutori: a specifically Japanese concept meaning subjective well-being. Japanese Journal of Social Psychology, 9, (In Japanese with English abstract.) Furukawa, H., Yagi, R., & Yamashita, M. (1994). The psychological structure of the feeling of yutori. International Economy and Work Monthly, 49, (In Japanese.) Japan Productivity Center (1990). Yutori, work motivation and productivity (Vol. 10). Tokyo: Japan Productivity Center. (In Japanese.) Kanbara, M., Higuchi, K., & Shimizu, N. (1982). New locus of control scale: its reliability and validity. Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology, 30, (In Japanese.) Okamoto, H. (1989). Humanics on yutori and ASERI. Child Study, 43, (In Japanese.) Shinmura, Y. (Ed.) (1998). Kojien (5th ed.). Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten. (In Japanese.) Yamashita, M., Furukawa, H., & Yagi, R. (1996). Structure of yutori: Japanese concept meaning subjective well-being. International Journal of Psychology, 31, 98. (Abstract.) Yamashita, M., Yagi, R., & Furukawa, H. (2000). Japanese workers in the 90 s (3): Life. International Journal of Psychology, 35, 362. (Abstract.) Yano, M., & Research Institute for Advancement of Living Standards (1998). Structure of yutori: Comparison of living time in six countries. Tokyo: Research Institute for Advancement of Living Standards. (In Japanese.) (Received March 5, 2001; accepted May 13, 2001)