MOTIVATION OF TAKING PHYSICAL EDUCATION COURSES BASED ON GENDER AND KNOWLEDGE OF HEALTH FUNG KING YIU

Transcription

1 MOTIVATION OF TAKING PHYSICAL EDUCATION COURSES BASED ON GENDER AND KNOWLEDGE OF HEALTH BY FUNG KING YIU AN HONHOURS PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND RECREATION MANAGEMENT (HONOURS) HONG KONG BAPTIST UNIVERSITY APRIL, 2013

2 HONG KONG BAPTIST UNIVERSITY 28 th April, 2013 We hereby recommend that the Honours Project by Mr Fung King Yiu entitled Motivation of taking physical education courses and based on gender and knowledge of health be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Arts Honours Degree in Physical Education and Recreation Management. Dr. Kim Seungmo Prof. Chung Pak Kwong Chief Adviser Second Reader

3 DECLARATION I hereby declare that this honours project Motivation of taking physical education courses and based on gender and knowledge of health represents my own work and had not been previously submitted to this or other institution for degree, diploma or other qualification. Citations from the other authors were listed in the references. Fung King Yiu 28 th April, 2013

4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my chief advisor, Dr. Kim Seungmo for his constructive advice and support throughout the entire study. I would also like to show my special thanks to Prof. Chung Pak Kwong to be my second reader to review this project. Special thanks to Miss Leung, Mr Kilo Wong, and Miss Yip Wai Chi from Hong Kong Baptist University for the data collection in their Physical Education Courses. Appreciations were given to all the participants who had given the essential data in this study. Fung King Yiu Department of Physical Education Hong Kong Baptist University Date: 28 th April, 2013

5 Abstract The aims of this study was firstly to investigate the influence of gender and knowledge of health on the motivation of HKBU non- PE major students taking compulsory PE course, and secondly, to investigate the relationship of various motivation subscales and the future intention to exercise after taking PE course. A total of 226 subjects were invited for completing the questionnaire. There were 77 males 149 females completed the questionnaire, while there were 32 with knowledge of health and 194 without knowledge of health. There were 10 out of 15 motivation subscales found to have significant mean difference in motivation of having compulsory PE courses between genders, while there were 3 out of 15 motivation subscales found to have significant mean difference in motivation of having compulsory PE courses between subjects with knowledge of health and subjects without knowledge of health. In additional, there were 3 out of 15 motivation subscales served as significant predictors on the future intention to continue exercise after taking PE

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER Page 1. INTRODUCTION 1 Statement of the Problem 4 Hypotheses 4 Definition of Terms 5 Delimitations 6 Limitations 6 Significance of the Study 7 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 9 Motivation Theory in Sport 9 Research on Motivation 12 The Relationship between Physical Education and Motivation 14 Gender Difference in Motivation 16 Influence of Knowledge of Health in Motivation 16 Summary 17

7 CHAPTER Page 3. METHOD 18 Sample of Selection 18 Measuring Instrument 19 Collection of Data 20 Statistical Data Analysis ANALYSIS OF DATA 23 Demographic Information 24 Reliability of the 15 Motivation Subscales 26 Mean, Standard Deviation and Rank Orders of the 15 Motivation Subscales among All Participants 27 Mean, Standard Deviation and Rank Orders of the 15 Motivation Subscales among the 4 categories 29 Comparison of the Mean Difference of the 15 Motivation Subscales between Male and Female 34

8 CHAPTER Page Comparison of the Mean Difference of the 15 Motivation Subscales between Subjects with Knowledge of Health and Subjects without Knowledge of Health 36 Mean Score and Multiple Regression from 15 Motivation Subscales to the Future Intention to Continue Exercise after Taking PE Course 38 Discussion of Results SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 50 Summary of Results 50 Conclusion 50 Recommendations 51 REFERENCES 53 APPENDIX 57 A. Questionnaire to Students 57

9 1 Chapter 1 Introduction Although the definition of physical education (PE) has been varying, generally it was believed to be a crucial part of education. Ciccomascolo and Sullivan (2013) indicate that the definition and purpose of physical education has been changing over time due to the impact of history, culture, economy and policy etc. However, according to Barik (2011), generally it can be defined as education through physical activities the development of total personality of the child and its fulfillment and perfection in body, mind and spirit. (p. 140) Through the National Association for Sport and Physical Education s (2004) interpretation of physical education, it shows how crucial physical education is. It states that physical activity is important to the development and maintenance of good health. Develop physically educated individuals who have the knowledge, skills, and confidence to enjoy a lifetime of healthful physical activity is the goal

10 2 of physical education. Undoubtedly, physical education is highly connected to health and wellness. Due to its significance, Physical Education in Hong Kong is legislated as a compulsory subject for primary and secondary students; however, there are no rules and regulations requiring Post- Secondary Education organizing compulsory PE class for students. Nonetheless, Hong Kong Baptist University (HKBU) is one of the rare universities in Hong Kong which requires non-pe major undergraduate students to attend two PE courses in order to graduate. Such requirement was set due to the university s missions. Hong Kong Baptist University (2013) aims at providing Whole Person Education that inculcates intellectual, cultural, social and sporting skills outside the classroom in addition to training the minds within. But some undergraduates from HKBU are complaining that they should have their right to decide if they want to take the PE courses. Though the PE courses are non- credit, it would not influence their academic result, the courses still consume their time and effort to pass the practical and

11 3 theory examinations in order to graduate. The motivation of non- PE major HKBU students taking the compulsory PE courses is in doubt. Some researchers examined the motivation between genders and the impact of knowledge of health. The research finding suggested that message for motivation should be strategically gender- specific for men and women. (Motivation Boosters for exercise, 2012). The result suggests that different genders have different motivations and constraints in doing exercise. On the other hand, another research suggests that one more about sport would have stronger intrinsic motivation to exercise and face fewer constraints. (Iso- Ahola et al., 2006) Study of the difference between gender and the knowledge of health in motivation for non- PE HKBU major students would help enhance the PE- course in well- motivated atmosphere.

12 4 Statement of the Problem The purpose of this study was to determine the gender difference and the difference of knowledge of health in motivation for taking Physical Education courses for non- PE major Hong Kong Baptist University undergraduates. In addition, the intention to continue exercise after PE was determined. Hypotheses The following hypotheses were formulated for testing: 1. There would be significant mean difference in motivation of having compulsory PE courses between genders. 2. There would be significant mean difference in motivation of having compulsory PE courses between subjects with knowledge of health and subjects without knowledge of health. 3. There would be significant prediction from motivation on the future intention to continue exercise after taking PE course.

13 5 Definition of Terms Motives According to Brehm (2004) and Rabey (2001), motives refer to impulses, inner drives, or intention dominant thought and cause a person to take a specific action or behavior, can be understood, explained and predicted. Health Health is defined as a resource for everyday life and a state of complete physical, mental and social well- being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. (World Health Organization, 2013) Compulsory PE Courses Compulsory PE Courses are the HKBU non- credit PE courses organized for non- PE major students to fulfill their graduation requirement. The Course Code should be listed as P.E. 1xxx or GCPE 1xxx. Non- PE major undergraduate students Non- PE major undergraduate students are those full- time undergraduates who are not taking the bachelor program of

14 6 Physical Education and Recreation Management (Honours). Delimitations The delimitations of the present study were listed as following: 1. The selected samples were delimited to Hong Kong Baptist University full- time undergraduates who were not studying the Bachelor program of Physical Education and Recreation Management (Honours), and who were taking PE courses this semester for the fulfillment of graduation requirement. 2. All data were distributed and collected by the researcher in March Limitations The following limitations should be considered when interpreting the results of this research: 1. Questionnaire was written in English which was not the first language of all respondents. Answer quality was not guaranteed.

15 7 2. It was assumed that students who had taken the health related course (BIOL 1620 You and Your Health; BMS 2440 Public Health and Family Medicine; ORGC 3220 Health Communication; PCM 2610 Chinese Medicinal Formulae) were equipped with knowledge of health regardless of their involvement and academic result of the courses. 3. Questionnaires were carried out in the class of PE course. The atmosphere of the class on that day might influence the result. 4. It was assumed that all subjects would answer the questionnaires honestly. Significance of the Study It is doubtless that physical education would provide a whole person well- being to students. It would encourage students to be technically able and intrinsically motivated to exercise in the future life. As Iso- Ahola et al. (2006) suggested that the premature mortality rate is about 50% lower among exercisers than non- exercisers. Thus, the

16 8 lifelong benefit should be well educated to students. Therefore, it is vital that through understanding how gender difference and the difference of knowledge of health influence the motivation, the class can be prepared and conducted in a structured and motivation- specific way.

17 9 Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE The review of literature was divided into six sections. The sections were: (1) Motivation Theory in Sport, (2) The Research on Motivation, (3) Relationship between Physical Education and Motivation, (4) Gender Difference in Motivation, (5) Influence of Knowledge of Health in Motivation, and (6) Summary. Motivation Theory in Sport There are different theories about motivation. Maslow s need hierarchy, invented in 1954, was one of the famous motivation theories. He proposed motivation could be separated into different levels and they could be put in a pyramid. Five levels were identified. The first level was the need of food, water, sleep and oxygen serving as the base of pyramid. The second level was the need of safety. The first two levels could be understood as the physiological

18 10 needs according to Shaw, Gorely & Corban (2005), whereas, the next three levels could be named as the psychological needs. The psychological needs included love, self- esteem and self- actualization. Maslow (1954) suggested that a person would pursue the upper level of the pyramid only when lower level of need was fulfilled. Self- Determination Theory (SDT) was another indispensable theory of motivation by Deci and Ryan (1985, 2000). SDT proposed a multi- dimensional perspective to motivation. Act and behavior could be studied based on intrinsic motivation versus extrinsic motivation versus amotivated. According to SDT, both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation were placed along the continuum of selfdetermination. Intrinsic motivation could refer to individuals who perform an activity in order to experience fun and pleasure, enrich personality or meet personal interest. In the continuum of self- determination, intrinsic motivation was placed at one end referring to the entirely regulated behaviours that

19 11 were executed for the activity s sake with no external contingency. However, extrinsic motivation was totally opposite to intrinsic motivation. It represented the performed behaviours due to the desirable outcomes of an individual. Moreover, external motivation could be divided into integrated regulation, identified regulation, introjected regulation and external regulation, ranging from high to low autonomy in the continuum of self- determination, based on the degree of relative autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 2008). Integrated regulation represented the activities joined without options. It was not expected to be found easily in children and adolescents, who were assumed to be inexperienced of a sense of integration by Deci and Ryan (2008). Identified regulation happened when an individual could choose freely to perform an activity considered as unenjoyable, but crucial. Introjected regulations referred to the incomplete internalization of a regulation that was previously solely

20 12 external (Deci & Ryan, 2008). External regulation represented those behaviours aiming at reward or punishment free. Amotivationn was also included in the continuum of selfdetermination. The behaviours which were lack of intention or motivation were classified as amotivation. Thus, Vallerand and Fortier (1998) suggested that those activities were expected to be disorganized and full of frustration, fear and depression. Except Maslow s need hierarchy and SDT, numerous theories of motivation were established. However, in this research, SDT would be mainly based on the motivation theories. Research on Motivation A lot of research had been conducted about exercise motivation in the college population. Two of them (Kimbrough, Rose, Vallee & Nelan, 2005; Maltby and Day, 2001) indicated that the most students cited motivation for exercise were weight management, performance motives, and general health motives. On the other hand, Egli, Bland, Melton and Czech (2011)

21 13 also found that students listed general health issues, appearance strength and endurance, and weight management as their top motivations for exercise. However, race and age were found to be an influential factor towards the motivation of exercise to students by Egli et al. (2011), Kumanyika (1987), and Rand and Kuldau (1990). They found that whites were more likely to be motivated to exercise for stress management, revitalization, enjoyment and weight management, where blacks and others were motivated to exercise for health pressures, ill- health avoidance, and nimbleness. They believed that the racial differences would be probably caused by the difference in social emphasis of physical activity. For age, the research of Egli et al. (2011) that those less than 20 years old were more motivated by the general health issues (health pressures and ill- health avoidance), which are both extrinsic factors. Those who were 20 years old or older were more motivated by the factor of affiliation with a group. It could be hypothesized that those

22 14 who are younger than 20 years old use exercise to stay socially engaged due to heavier class workloads. The Relationship between Physical Education and Motivation Research indicated that the participation in physical education could bring potentially both positive and negative experiences to students (Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Culverhouse & Biddle, 2003; McKenzie, 2007; Pratt, Macera & Blanton, 1999). Yli- Piipari, Watt, Jaakkola, Liukkonen and Nurmi (2009) revealed that enjoyment in PE class was connected to the level of motivation in class. Supported by Ntoumanis (2002), Yli- Piipari (2009) also proved the contrast between clusters in which he labeled as high and moderate in motivation were also high in enjoyment, whereas, students who were lower in motivation reported lower levels of enjoyment in PE (p. 332). It was further discovered that those students who were low motivated in class would be related with negative outcomes such as boredom and unhappiness. (Standage, Duda & Penagaard, 2005).

23 15 Mckenzie (2007) also stated that those students, who experienced positive outcomes from their involvement in PE class, would also be expected to stay certain level of physical activity in adulthood. Findings from Wang and Biddle (2001) were aligned with findings from Yli-Piipari et al. (2009) indicating that the higher the students were motivated in the PE class, the higher the students engaged in physical activity outside school. Alternatively, it was also proved by Wang and Biddle (2001) and Yli-Piipari et al. (2009) that the lower the motivation the students were motivated in the PE class, and the lower the students engaged in physical activity outside school. In addition, Pelltier et al. (1995), and Fortier and Gaya (1997) also indicated that students with low motivation in PE class had strong negative relationship with future physical activity participation levels. Specifically, Maltby and Day (2001) showed that those who had continually lived an exercise- led lifestyle in an organized program for six months were likely to be active a year or two later.

24 16 Gender Difference in Motivation Egli et al. (2011) examined on 14 subscales of exercise motivation between genders on college students, and it was found that 12 of them were significantly varied between genders. They stated that males tended to be more intrinsically motivated while females tended to be more extrinsically motivated. Kilpartrick, Hebery and Bartholomew (2005), and Grogan, Conner and Smithson (2006) further explained that weight management was the top cited motivation for female, while challenge and appearance were both listed as the top motivation for male. This indicated that health or sport educator should use entirely different approach for two sexes. Influence of Knowledge of Health in Motivation Comparing to the studies on gender influence, there was limited finding on the influence of knowledge of health in motivation. Iso- Ahola et al. (2006) stated that both attitudes and knowledge were negatively related to

25 17 constraints and more positive attitudes toward, and better knowledge about exercise and health reduce perceived constraints and thereby promote intrinsic motivation for exercise. Tai- Seale (2003), and Litt, Kleppinger and Judge (2002) found that recognized health knowledge was a significant factor in moving belief into action. All of the above researches emphasized their results only showing that knowledge of health only benefitted intrinsic motivation, but no direct effect on extrinsic motivation. Summary As the review of literature of benefit from physical education and the influence of different factors on motivation of the PE class and exercise, there was no doubt that organizing a high motivating PE class was important. Thereby, gender and knowledge of health were picked to investigate the current situation of the PE class of HKBU in order to provide a motivation- specific PE class.

26 18 CHAPTER 3 METHOD The method of the study was presented in the following sections: (a) Sample of selection, (b) Measuring instrument, (c) Collection of data and (d) Statistical Data Analysis. Sample of Selection The subjects selected for this study were the non- PE major undergraduate students, who were taking the PE course in the second semester of 2013 academic year, from Hong Kong University. Eight sections of PE course were selected nonrandomly according to the approval of the teachers of those classes based on their desire and consideration. The purpose of the project would be explained, and then asked if individuals would be willing to participate voluntarily without any advantage or penalty. A total number of 235 subjects participated in the study with 77 male and 149 female from the eight sections selected.

27 19 Measuring Instrument The questionnaire consisted of three main parts. Part A was the acknowledgement of voluntarily completing of questionnaire. Part B was the modified Exercise Motivation Inventory- 2 (EMI-2) developed by Markland & Ingledew (1997). Part C was the demographic questions, question about knowledge of health and the future intention of physical activity after taking PE course. In part A, participants are required to complete a set of 54 items. These questions were developed based on 15 subscales, which are stress management, revitalization, enjoyment, challenge, social recognition, affiliation, competition, health pressures, ill- health avoidance, positive health, weight management, appearance, strength and endurance, nimbleness and graduation. Response items range from 0 to 5, with 0 depicting not at all true for me, 1 depicting not quite true for me, 2 depicting not a bit true for me, 3 depicting a bit true to me, 4 depicting quite true to me,

28 20 and 5 depicting very true to me. Subscales are comprised of 3 to 4 questions, with subscale scores obtained by calculating the mean for the appropriate items. However, the questions would be mixed and listed randomly, and the type of subscale would not be shown in the questionnaire for the respondents. Part C was demographic questions about respondent s gender, knowledge of health, the program they were studying, and the future intention of physical activity after taking PE It was assumed that if students took health- relevant course, they were equipped with knowledge of health. Collection of Data 230 students of the selected nine sections of PE classes, including two classes of Tai Chi, five classes of Table Tennis, one class of Fitness and Body Building, and 1 class of Badminton, would be volunteers to complete the questionnaire. After explaining the purpose of project and the questionnaire, all the volunteers are required to fill in the questionnaire. The

29 21 questionnaires were conducted at the beginning, in the break or at the end of the class according to the teacher s preference. Statistical Data Analysis After data collection, all of the questionnaire were put into further analysis and were inputted in to the Statistical Package for the Social Science (SPSS) for Window 18.0 version. The significant (alpha) level was set at.05. Gender and knowledge of sport served as the independent variables. Means were utilized to determine group ranking of exercise motivations. Due to the imbalance of number of participants of male and female (male= 77, female= 149) and the small sample size of students who were educated with knowledge of health (students with knowledge of health= 32, students without knowledge of health= 194), Mann- Whitney U tests were executed to determine significant difference of motivation in terms of gender and knowledge of health. In addition, multiple regression was utilized with 15 motivation subscales of taking

30 22 PE class to examine the influences of the motivations on future intention of exercise.

31 23 CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS OF DATA The purposes of the study were 1) to find out the gender difference and the difference of knowledge of health in motivation for taking Physical Education courses for non- PE major Hong Kong Baptist University undergraduates, and 2) to examine impact of motivation on the intention to continue exercise after PE class. The analysis of data was presented in this chapter according to the following topics: (a) demographic information (sample size, gender, and knowledge of health), (b) reliability of the 15 subscales, (c) means, standard deviation and rank order of the 15 subscales among all participants, (d) means, standard deviation and rank order of the 15 subscales among the 4 categories (male, female, students with knowledge of health, students without knowledge of health), (e) comparison of the mean difference of the 15 motivation subscales among male and female, (f) comparison of the mean difference of the 15 motivation subscales

32 24 students with knowledge of health and students without knowledge of health, (g) multiple regression from 15 motivation subscales to the future intention to continue exercise after taking PE course, and (h) Discussion of results. Demographic Information Sample Size A total of 230 questionnaires on motivation of taking PE class of HKBU students were distributed. All cases were returned, however, 4 of them were incompleted or found that the questionnaires were answered in pattern inappropriately. Gender Distribution There were a total of 77 male and 149 female students from sampling. Composition of gender is shown in Figure 1.

33 25 Figure 1 Gender Distribution (N=230) Students Knowledge of Health Distribution There were a total of 32 subjects with knowledge of health and 194 subjects without knowledge of health from sampling. Composition of gender is shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 Students Knowledge of Health Distribution

34 26 Reliability of the 15 Motivation Subscales All the reliability of 15 motivation subscales were found to have Cronbach s Alpha larger than 0.70 as listed in Table 1. Table 1 Reliability of 15 motivation subscales Subscale Cronbach's Number of Alpha questions Stress management Revitalisation Enjoyment Challenge Social Recognition Affiliation Competition Health Pressures Ill-health Avoidance Positive Health Weight Management Appearance Strength & Endurance Nimbleness Graduation

35 27 Mean, Standard Deviation and Rank Orders of the 15 Motivation Subscales among All Participants The ranking order was descended according to the mean of each subscale. Graduation (M= 3.96, S.D.= 1.05) ranked at the top, positive health (M= 3.15, S.D.= 1.18) ranked at the second, and strength and endurance (M= 2.78, S.D.= 1.21) ranked at the third, while health pressures (M= 1.80, S.D.= 1.12) ranked at the last. Mean and standard deviation of all subscales were presented in Table 2.

36 28 Table 2 Mean, standard deviation and ranking of all participants on the 15 motivation subscales Ranking Mean Std. Deviation Graduation Positive Health Ill- Health Avoidance Strength & Endurance Affiliation Revitalisation Enjoyment Weight Management Nimbleness Stress Management Challenge Appearance Social Recognition Competition Health Pressures

37 29 Mean, standard deviation and rank orders Of the 15 motivation subscales among the 4 categories Below showed the mean, standard deviation and ranking of the 15 motivation subscales among the 4 categories, including male, female, students with knowledge of health, and students without knowledge of health. Male Group Mean, Standard Deviation and Ranking Order The ranking order was descended according to the mean of each subscale. Graduation (M= 3.45, S.D.= 1.12) ranked at the top, positive health (M= 3.26, S.D.= 1.01) ranked at the second, and strength and endurance (M= 3.13, S.D.= 0.98) ranked at the third, while health pressures (M= 1.93, S.D.= 1.11) ranked at the last. Mean and standard deviation of all subscales were presented in Table 3.

38 30 Table 3 Mean, standard deviation and ranking of the male subjects the 15 motivation subscales Motivation Subscale Ranking Mean Std. Deviation Graduation Positive Health Strength & Endurance Affiliation Enjoyment Revitalisation Ill-health Avoidance Stress Management Challenge Nimbleness Appearance Weight Management Competition Social Recognition Health Pressures Female Group Mean, Standard Deviation and Ranking Order The ranking order was descended according to the mean of each subscale. Graduation (M= 4.22, S.D.= 0.91) ranked at the top, positive health (M= 3.09, S.D.= 1.25) ranked at the second, and ill- health avoidance (M= 2.73, S.D.= 1.28) ranked at the third, while health pressures (M=1.73, S.D.= 1.13) ranked at the last. Mean, standard deviation and ranking order

39 31 were presented in Table 4. Table 4 Mean, standard deviation and ranking of the female subjects on the 15 motivation subscales Motivation Subscale Ranking Mean Std. Deviation Graduation Positive Health Ill-health Avoidance Affiliation Weight Management Strength & Endurance Revitalisation Nimbleness Enjoyment Stress Management Challenge Appearance Social Recognition Competition Health Pressures Students with Knowledge of Health s Group Mean, Standard Deviation and Ranking Order The ranking order was descended according to the mean of each subscale. Graduation (M= 4.00, S.D.= 1.24) ranked at the top, positive health (M= 3.53, S.D.= 0.99) ranked at the second, and strength and endurance (M= 3.12, S.D= 1.26) ranked

40 32 at the third, while health pressures (M= 1.94, S.D.= 1.14) ranked at the last. Mean, standard deviation and ranking order of all motivation subscales were presented in Table 5. Table 5 Mean, standard deviation and ranking of the subjects with knowledge of health on the 15 motivation subscales Motivation Subscale Ranking Mean Std. Deviation Graduation Positive Health Strength Endurance Nimbleness Revitalisation Ill-health Avoidance Enjoyment Affiliation Weight Management Challenge Stress Management Appearance Competition Social Recognition Health Pressures Students without Knowledge of Health s Group Mean, Standard Deviation and Ranking Order The ranking order was descended according to the mean of each subscale. Graduation (M= 3.95, S.D.= 1.02) ranked at

41 33 the top, positive health (M= 3.01, S.D.= 1.20) ranked at the second, and ill- health avoidance (M=2.73, S.D.= 1.20) ranked at the third, while health pressures (M= 1.78, S.D.= 12) ranked at the last. Mean, standard deviation and ranking order of all subscales were presented in Table 6. Table 6 Mean, standard deviation and ranking of the subjects without knowledge of health on the 15 motivation subscales Motivation Subscale Ranking Mean Std. Deviation Graduation Positive Health Ill-health Avoidance Affiliation Strength Endurance Revitalisation Enjoyment Weight Management Stress Management Nimbleness Challenge Appearance Social Recognition Competition Health Pressures

42 34 Comparison of the Mean Difference of the 15 Motivation Subscales between Male and Female The Mann- Whitney U Test, as shown in Table 7, indicated that, there were significant mean difference between male and female in stress management (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.01), revitalisation (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.04), enjoyment (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.00), challenge (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.04), social recognition (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.00), affiliation (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.01), competition (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.00), appearance (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.05), strength and endurance (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.00), and graduation (Mann- Whitney U= , p=0.00). However, there were no significant mean difference between male and female in health pressures (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.33), ill- health avoidance (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.83), positive health (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.63), weight management (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.51), and nimbleness

43 35 (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.55). There were significant mean differences in 10 out of 15 motivation subscales. Therefore, hypothesis 1 was accepted. Table 7 Comparison of mean score on 15 motivation subscales between male and female Motivation Mann-Whitney Asymp. Sig. Subscale U (2-tailed) Stress Management Revitalisation Enjoyment Challenge Social Recognition Affiliation Competition Health Pressures Ill-health Avoidance Positive Health Weight Management Appearance Strength & Endurance Nimbleness Graduation

44 36 Comparison of the Mean Difference of the 15 Motivation Subscales between Subjects with Knowledge of Health and Subjects without Knowledge of Health The Mann- Whitney U Test, as shown in Table 8, indicated that, there were significant mean difference between subjects with knowledge of health and subjects without knowledge of health in revitalisation (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.05), enjoyment (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.03), and nimbleness (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.01). However, there were no significant mean difference between subjects with knowledge of health and subjects without knowledge of health in stress management (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.53), challenge (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.06), social recognition (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.64), affiliation (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.21), competition (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.12), health pressures (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.58), ill- health avoidance (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.19, positive health (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.07), weight management (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.43), appearance

45 37 (Mann Whitney U= , p= 0.15), strength and endurance (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.06), and graduation (Mann- Whitney U= , p= 0.51). There were significant mean differences between subjects with knowledge of health and without knowledge of health on 3 out of 15 motivation Thus, hypothesis 2 was accepted. Table 8 Comparison of mean score on 15 motivation subscales between subjects with knowledge of health and without knowledge of health Motivation Subscale Mann-Whitney U Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) Stress Management Revitalisation Enjoyment Challenge Social Recognition Affiliation Competition Health Pressures Ill-health Avoidance Positive Health Weight Management Appearance Strength & Endurance Nimbleness Graduation

46 38 Mean Score and Multiple Regression from 15 Motivation Subscales to the Future Intention to Continue Exercise after Taking PE Course The mean score of the future intention to continue exercise after taking PE course for all subjects was 3.47, which was between quite true to me and a bit true to me. According to the Multiple Regressions, there were 3 out of 15 motivation subscales as shown on Table 9, which were the significant predictors for future intention to continue exercise after taking PE course, including enjoyment (Beta= 0.31, p= 0.05), health pressures (Beta= -0.20, p= 0.01), and positive health (Beta= 0.40, p= 0.00). Among these three predictors, positive health (Beta= 0.40) was more important than enjoyment (Beta= 0.31) than health pressures (Beta= -0.20). While both positive health and enjoyment were positively predicting the future intention, health pressures was negatively predicting the future intention. Thus, hypothesis 3 was also accepted.

47 39 Table 9 Significance of multiple regression from 15 motivation subscales to the future intention to continue exercise after taking PE course Unstandardized Standardized Motivation Coefficients Coefficients Sig. Subscale B Beta (Constant) Stress Management Revitalisation Enjoyment Challenge Social Recognition Affiliation Competition Health Pressures Ill-health Avoidance Positive Health Weight Management Appearance Strength Endurance Nimbleness Graduation

48 40 Discussion of Results The aims of this study was firstly to investigate the influence of gender and knowledge of health on the motivation of HKBU non- PE major students taking compulsory PE course. By knowing the motivation of the students, it would be easier to know how to motivate different genders and would equipping students with knowledge of health help encourage them to take PE course and exercise or not. Secondly, by investigating the relationship of various motivation subscales and the future intention to exercise after taking PE course, PE course could be well- planned and managed in the form of promoting lifelong physical activity. This section was divided into three parts. They were ranking order and mean difference of the 15 motivation subscales between genders, ranking order and mean difference of the 15 motivation subscales between subjects with knowledge of health and subjects without knowledge of health, and the prediction of future intention of exercise after taking PE course from 15 motivation subscales.

49 41 Firstly, in terms of gender, for male, the mean scores of 5 out of 15 motivation subscales were rated above 3.0 a bit true to me). In descending order, they were graduation, positive health, strength and endurance, affiliation, and enjoyment. However, there were only 2 out of 15 motivation subscales having mean scores greater than 3.0 for female. These included graduation and positive health descendingly. The male result of this study was completely coherent with the finding of Egli, Bland, Melton and Czech (2011). They found that intrinsic factors, including strength, positive health, and enjoyment, were the key motivations for males. In this study, all these three factors were ranked from the Second to the Fourth in this study. However, the result of this study did not align with those of Kiplatrick, Hebert and Bartholomew (2005), and Grogan, Conner and Smithson (2006). They revealed that men were motivated by the challenge and appearance aspects, while challenge and appearance were located in rank Ninth and Eleventh respectively, and the mean score of them were placed at the middle of the 0 to 5 rating scale indicating

50 42 more to neutral. On the other hand, the female result of this study did not align with the result of other research. Kiplatrick et al. (2005), and Grogan et al. (2006) pointed out that women were mainly motivated by weight management. This study revealed that weight management ranked at the Fifth, nonetheless, its mean score was 2.60, which was located at the middle of the scale. Thus, it implied that this item did not motivate the subjects to exercise. Moreover, Egli et al. (2011) suggested that ill- health avoidance, maintain positive health, weight management and appearance were the major motivation for female to exercise. In this study, female students indicated they a bit agreed positive health and ill-health avoidance as their motivation to take PE class, and these two items ranked at the Second and Third respectively. However, they rated appearance around A bit untrue to me as the reason for taking PE class. The most contradictory to the other mentioned studies was that weight management ranked at the Fifth, but its mean score was only 2.59, which located right at the middle

51 43 of the 0 to 5 rating scale. Certainly, graduation served as the top motivation for both male and female subjects taking PE courses and the mean score of this items for female was the only rating reaching quite true to me (M= 4.22) among both genders. Undoubtedly, the graduation requirement of HKBU, which required non- PE major students to take two PE courses, would have strong impact on the motivation of taking PE course. Fortunately, result showed that it was not the only reason students taking PE courses. Nevertheless, roughly comparing the mean score and ranking of motivation subscales between genders, a great difference could still be noticed. There were around 9 out of 15 subscales mean scores higher from 2.7 to 3.5, implying that male subjects a bit agreed or quite agreed these 9 items encouraging them to take PE course. But there were limitedly 3 out of 15 motivation subscales were rated above 2.7. But there were around 8 motivation subscales rated around the middle of the scales (Mean scores from 2.3 to 2.7) by the female, while around 5 items were rated around the middle of the scales.

52 44 For the items rated below 2.3, which were recognized as a bit untrue to me or quite untrue to me, there was only 1 subscale for male, while there were 4 subscales for female. Generally, it could be concluded that males agreed more reasons as their motivation of taking PE course then females, while female disagreed more reasons as their motivation of taking PE course then males. Egli et al. (2011) indicated that 12 out of 14 EMI-2 motivation subscales were found significantly different between males and females. And they concluded that males and females are motivated to participate in exercise for entirely different reasons. In this study, 10 out of 15 modified EMI-2 motivation subscales were found significantly different between genders. If neglecting the graduation items designed for HKBU students in this study, 9 out of 14 EMI-2 motivation subscales were found significantly different between genders. Egli et al. (2011) suggested the greatest difference between genders was that males tend to be more motivated by intrinsic factors, whereas females were more motivated by extrinsic

53 45 factors. According to the division from Kilpatrick et al. (2005), challenge, affiliation, revitalization, and enjoyment were regarded as intrinsic factors, whereas appearance, weight management, health pressure, ill- health avoidance, and competition were regarded as extrinsic factors. For the intrinsic factors, all the listed items by Kiplatrick et al. (2005) were found significantly different in terms of mean between genders. All challenge, affiliation, revitalization and enjoyment were found to be agreed (M > 2.7) by males in this study as the motivation of taking PE whereas females rated all of them as around the middle of the continuum (2.3< M <2.7)or even disagreement (M < 2.3). For the extrinsic factors, only 2 out of 5 subscales were significantly different in terms of mean between genders. appearance and competition were rated in the middle of the scales (2.3< M <2.7), while females disagreed (M < 2.3) them as the reasons for taking PE courses. No significant mean difference was found for the rest weight management, health pressure and ill- health avoidance. Both genders agreed ill-

54 46 health avoidance (M > 2.7) as their motivation, but they rated weight management at the middle (2.3 < M < 2.7), and health pressure at the other extreme (M <2.3). The result of intrinsic factors were completely aligned with Kiplatrick et al. (2005), while there were some contradictory in the extrinsic factors. Secondly, in terms of knowledge of health, according to Prochaska et al. (1994), people would be motivated to take action of physical activity only if they could perceive fewer cons or more pros for exercise. Though there was no research using EMI-2 to study the factor of knowledge of health on motivation, Tai- Seale (2003) proved that recognized knowledge of benefit of exercise and awareness of a problem requiring regular activity could trigger subjects to do regular exercise. This study showed that although the effect was small, but still 3 out of 15 motivation subscales the significant mean difference between subjects with knowledge of health and subjects without knowledge of health. Revitalisation, enjoyment and nimbleness were the items with difference. Revitalisation ranked at the Fifth showing it was

55 47 a bit true (M > 2.7) to health- knowledgeable students as a motivation for taking PE course, while it ranked at Sixth placing at the middle of the motivation scale (2.3 < M < 2.7). The more health- educated subjects, the more revitalized they were for having PE class. For enjoyment, ranked at the Seventh showing it was a bit true (M > 2.7) to health- knowledgeable students as a motivation for taking PE course, while it ranked at the Seventh placing at the middle of the motivation scale (2.3 < M < 2.7). The more health- educated subjects, the more enjoyed they were for having PE class. For nimbleness,it ranked at the Fourth showing it was a bit true (M > 2.7) to health- knowledgeable students as a motivation for taking PE course, while it ranked at the Tenth placing at the middle of the motivation scale (2.3 < M < 2.7). The more healtheducated subjects, the more nimble they were for having PE class. However, it was interesting to discover that the knowledge of health did not have impact on the health- related motivation subscales, such as positive health (p= 0.07), ill- health

56 48 avoidance (p= 0.19), and health pressures (p= 0.58). These would be caused by the limitation and assumption of the designed test. Students who took health- related course in HKBU were assumed as health- educated. Nevertheless, these students may not learn much or study hard for that course, or the rest of the subjects were health- educated before entering HKBU, therefore, there were no significant mean difference among two categories observed. Thirdly, in terms of the prediction for future intention to continue exercise, it was a good news to HKBU. Although taking PE course was set as a graduation requirement, and graduation was the top ranked motivation subscales in this study, the future intention of exercise of all subjects were still located between to quite true to me and a bit true to me. However, from the multiple regression, it showed that enjoyment (Beta= 0.31, p= 0.05), positive health (Beta= 0.40, p= 0.00) and nimbleness (Beta= -0.18, p= 0.09) were significant predictors for the future intention of exercise

57 49 after taking PE course. Among three, enjoyment was the most crucial factor for the future intention, while positive health was the second important, and nimbleness was the third. Enjoyment and positive health showed a positive linear regression of future intention, it implied that the more enjoyment or the more positive health- related the lesson was, the higher intention of the subjects to exercise in the future. On the other hand, nimbleness served as a negative linear predictor for future intention, it implied that the less the subjects felt nimble, the higher intention the subjects would exercise in the future.

58 50 CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION This chapter had been divided into three main parts. They were summary of results, conclusions and recommendations for further study. Summary of Results The PE class can be designed specifically with gender and different level of knowledge of health. Thus, students can have higher motivation for the PE class. On the other PE course can be designed specifically with the significant predictors of motivation subscales for future intention to continue exercise after taking PE course. Organizing PE course aims at encouraging students to increase physical activity lifelong, while PE class with specific motivation items can meet so. Conclusion From the statistics findings, the following results were found: 1. The hypothesis 1 was partly accepted since there would be

59 51 10 out of 15 motivation subscales found to have significant mean difference in motivation of having compulsory PE courses between genders. 2. The hypothesis 2 was partly accepted since there would be 3 out of 15 motivation subscales found to have significant mean difference in motivation of having compulsory PE courses between subjects with knowledge of health and subjects without knowledge of health. 3. The hypothesis 3 was partly accepted since there would be 3 out of 15 motivation subscales served as significant predictors from motivation on the future intention to continue exercise after taking PE course. Recommendations Based on the results, the following recommendations are made: 1. As there was significant mean difference on motivation subscale between gender, and subjects with knowledge of health and subjects without knowledge of health, these should be a major consideration for the design of PE course.

60 52 2. As there were significant predictors of motivation from PE course to the future intention to continue exercise after the course, the quality and motivation- specific design should be considered.

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