The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males

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1 The Huron University College Journal of Learning and Motivation Volume 48 Issue 1 Article The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males Samantha Buxton Follow this and additional works at: Part of the Psychology Commons Recommended Citation Buxton, Samantha (2010) "The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males," The Huron University College Journal of Learning and Motivation: Vol. 48 : Iss. 1, Article 16. Available at: This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Psychology at Scholarship@Western. It has been accepted for inclusion in The Huron University College Journal of Learning and Motivation by an authorized editor of Scholarship@Western. For more information, please contact tadam@uwo.ca, wlswadmin@uwo.ca.

2 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 23 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males Samantha Buxton Huron University College Abstract The effect of competition and reward on intrinsic motivation was examined in 40 undergraduate university males. The purpose was to determine the main effects of competition and reward, and the interaction effect between the two. Based on previous studies, it was expected that competition and reward would decrease intrinsic motivation. Participants were divided into four conditions, competitionreward, competition-no-reward, no-competition-reward, and no-competition- no-reward. Participants then were provided with a three-dimensional soma puzzle to complete in one or two phases. The first phase was the experimental phase, which acted as a primer for the second phase. Intrinsic motivation was measured as the number of soma structures completed on the optional second phase. A significant main effect was found for competition, and the interaction effect, however not for the main effect of reward. Possible extraneous variables, explanations and implications are discussed. Motivation is the stimulation of an organism to achieve a specific goal, and is a driving force than can be credited behind most behaviours. It gives purpose and direction to the behaviour, and influences many different aspects, such as perseverance and sense of satisfaction in accomplishment. Everyone experiences motivation, but it can be experienced from intrinsic sources or extrinsic sources.

3 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 24 Intrinsic motivation is distinguishable from extrinsic motivation by its source of reinforcement. It is characterized by the sense of competence and pride in completing a task or performing certain behaviours, and its reinforcement is internal, and is the satisfaction of simply finishing the job. The focus and source of reward is internal, or intrinsic. In contrast, there is extrinsic motivation, which is external and comes in the form of rewards or competition: the satisfaction in surpassing the accomplishments of another person. The focus of this motivation is on the exterior, and comes from a source outside of one's self or the task. These two types of motivation are, in effect contrasts, and it is the purpose of this study to prove that one inhibits the other, or rather that extrinsic motivation, in the form of competition and/or reward decreases intrinsic motivation. As forms of extrinsic motivation, it is expected that competition and reward will focus the participant's attention on external rewards, and away from internal things. They will find their motivation in these external things and no longer rely on intrinsic motivation to guide behaviour. Once external rewards are removed, participants will no 'longer have motivation. Thus, it is expected that competition and reward will decrease * Ihlrinsic motivation. The effects of external rewards on intrinsic motivation have been

4 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 25 examined before, but there are often confliction conclusions. There are however, some studies that have found definite effects on intrinsic motivation. Past studies have focused principally on only one affecting variable at a time. A study done by Deci (1971), called Effects of Externally Mediated Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation, divided participants into two groups: a control group, and an external reward group. Each group was studied in three phases. The first phase was the same for both groups; intrinsic motivation was measured by how much time each participant spent on the task. In the second phase the experimental group was given either physical rewards, or verbal praise for completing the same task. The final phase was also the same for both groups; task performance was measured. The time participants spent on the first task was compared to the time spent on the third task. The researcher found that physical rewards, such as money, decreased intrinsic motivation whereas rewards such as verbal praise increased it. The reasons given behind this was that perhaps verbal praise is similar to the satisfaction one would feel in intrinsic motivation, whereas tangible rewards remove the locus of control from the participant. The researchers did mention, however, that money perhaps has different effects than other tangible rewards, due to its cultural use. Another study done by Deci et al, (1981), called When Trying to Win: Competition and Intrinsic Motivation, found that competition decreased intrinsic

5 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 26 motivation. They tested males and females in either a competitive condition, where the participant competed against a same sex confederate who was posing as another participant, or in a control condition, where they were instructed complete the puzzle as fast as possible. The confederate was used to ensure that the researchers had control over the outcome of the competition situation. In that way, they can control for winning or losing and guide the results toward a common outcome (such as winning) in order to keep the procedures consistent among all competitive participants, and to control for winning or losing against a competitor. The puzzles used were Soma puzzles, which are three-dimensional block puzzles, which must be solved by building specific threedimensional structures. In the second phase the participant was left alone in the experimental room for eight minutes with the puzzle. Intrinsic motivation was measured by the amount of time the participant spent doing the puzzles in that eight minutes, instead of performing other behaviours. Their interpretation behind the results was that competition was extrinsic, and thijs directs the participants' perspective and motivation outwards, away from the intrinsic aspects of motivation. A third study, The Impact of Competition on Intrinsic Motivation and Creativity; Considering Gender, Gender Segregation and Gender Role Orientation (Conti, Collins, Picariello, 2001), tested the difference in effect of competition on boys and girls. They

6 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 27 found that masculine children had increased motivation when competing against someone of the same-sex, and that more feminine children had decreased motivation when competing. These results highlight the sex differences in the effects of competition. This has important implications for future studies that try and examine competition: they must control for gender differences as the effects of competition differ between the sexes. One conclusion that can be from this study is that where competition is concerned, no longer can both genders be tested together; gender adds another variable that must be accounted for when examining the effects of competition. This study also reveals a fair amount as to the different theories about the effects of competition on intrinsic motivation. The results of this study contradict those of the Deci et al, (1981) study, but highlights a need for further research and support in the matter. Herba (2009) conducted a study called The Effect of Male Competition and External Reward on Intrinsic Motivation. The study took into account the gender differences mentioned above, and examined the main effects of reward and competition on males only, as well as the interaction effect of the two variables. The objective was to support the theories that extrinsic motivation (reward ad competition) decrease intrinsic motivation. The method of measurement used was, like the Deci et al. (1981) study, soma

7 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 28 puzzles. Participants were divided into five conditions: competition-reward, competitionno-reward, no-competition-reward, and no-competition-no-reward, and variation on competition-no-reward. Participants solved soma puzzles in two phases. The first phase was the priming phase where the experimental differences were administered. Participants were rewarded and competed according to their condition as they solved a soma cube (3x3 cube made from the seven soma puzzle pieces) as fast as possible or faster than their competitor. The second phase was the measurement phase, and was the same for all participants, regardless of condition. Each participant individually was given the option of continuing with the soma puzzle and solving another nine puzzles. Their time was counted as a measure of intrinsic motivation. Though it was based on previous research that had found significance for those effects individually, the study found no significance, and gives possible explanations for the findings. The present study uses similar methods to the Herba (2009) study and attempts to find significance by controlling for the extraneous variables and confounds that were not controlled for in that study. Random sampling was an issue because of the limited resources that author had. Participants were placed in their respective conditions based on their seating arrangements: if there were two men sitting together, they would automatically be placed in a competition condition. Rewards were also given to all

8 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 29 participants in the reward conditions, regardless of performance, potentially skewing the data as the participants may not have seen the reward as a result of their performance, but rather simply for participation. There were also several participants who believed the task to be an IQ test, thus altering the motivation. Perhaps failure to continue was perceived as a measure of unintelligence by the participant. At a university campus, this would have higher significance than perhaps the general population, further skewing the data. The author also noted that in her validity measurements of the perceived feelings of competition in the competition conditions, few or little competition was actually felt. Final criticisms include the fact that there was continued competition in the second phase of the study, and that the perseverance of the losing competitor was not counted towards their motivation. The present study will attempt to remedy these issues. Participants will be assigned their eonditions before being approached by the researcher who will have already pulled the options from an envelope. This is expected to remedy the random assignment issues. Rewards will only given to those who meet the criteria and it will be atade clear that the second phase is not an IQ test, and thus the participants will be free to 5P«nd as much time as they choose. In competition conditions, the researcher will make it clear that they are meant to be competing, and will try to instill a sense of competition by

9 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 30 using phrases such as "on your mark, get set, go!" This experiment will also take into account the perseverance of the losing competitor and try to encourage participants to complete the second phase individually, particularly in the second phase. With these specific alterations and controls for influencing variables, it is hypothesized that intrinsic motivation, as measured by the number of puzzles completed in the second phase, will be lower in competition and reward conditions, compared to nocompetition and no-reward conditions. A 2x2 analysis will be conducted to test for significance of main effects and also for an interaction effect between the two variables. Method Participants Participants were 40 conveniently selected undergraduate university males. They were found by the researcher in public areas on the university campus, including the University Campus Center's cafeteria (UCC), the Huron University College cafeteria, Student Activity Centre (SAC), and in the Betty & Allen Taylor Library (Taylor). Majority of participants were approached between early afternoon and evening. No primary cultural background was noted among participants: they were a diverse cultural group, including Caucasians, Asians, African Americans and Hispanic males.

10 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 31 Materials Each participant was given an information sheet and a consent form that had to be signed. Then they were given an instruction sheet as the first page, which had a black and white image of a solved Soma cube (a 3x3 cube) with instructions for their assigned condition (See Appendix A). The participants solved Soma puzzles. They are three-dimensional puzzles made of wood blocks. There are seven pieces per puzzle, each made up of either three or four 1.5 cm X 1.5 cm wood cubes, glued together using wood glue, in shapes according to KoUer (1999). There were four Soma puzzles used, and each was held in its own resealable plastic bag. These are the same puzzles used by Herba (2009). Imagqs of these blocks are in Appendix B. $30 worth of candy from the Bulk Bam and the Huron cafeteria were purchased and used for rewards in the reward conditions of phase one. These rewards included chocolate bars, boxes of candies, and small pouches of sweet treats. They were all held in a plastic bag, from which participants could choose, had they won. The second phase involved three instructions sheets, which were on 8 Vz by 11" P^^, and described the instructions for the second phase, as well as provided the names

11 The Effects of Competition and Rev/ard on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 32 and accurate two- dimensional images of the possible structures. These sheets are in Appendix C. The participants were given data recording sheets to fill in during the second phase. On the sheet was a place to write the start time and finish time of the entire second phase, as well as which structures they completed, and how long they spent on each structure. There was a question on the bottom of the data recording sheet, asking whether, if time allowed, they would continue. If they answered "Yes" it was counted as another completed structure. This sheet is in Appendix D. Attached to the data recording sheet was a brief questionnaire, consisting of between three and six questions, which gained more information conceming the perceptions of the experiment. The original questionnaire was from Herba (2009), and was altered slightly to gather more information. Some of the questions, such as if competition was felt in phase one, were used for validity checks, to ensure that competition was indeed a variable that could effect the dependant variable and alter the performance outcome. Another question was if the reward options were desirable, and this was to ensure that the rewards were salient enough to have the desired effect in reward conditions. A third question was to measure the impact that time restraints had on the second phase. This sheet is in Appendix E.

12 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 33 After finishing the second phase, participants were given a debrief form. Procedure Before the participants were approached by the researcher, they were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions by the researcher who pulled the conditions from an envelope. The researcher then approached the participants and asked them if they had a couple of minutes. The tasks were explained and the participants were asked if they were willing to participate. They were then given the information sheet and the consent form, which were immediately signed. The participants were then given the blocks, and shown the instruction sheet for the first phase. They were told to build the cube as fast as possible in all conditions. In the reward conditions, only if the participant met the requirements for reward (surpassed the other person in the competition condition, or complete it in under 10 minutes in the non-competition condition) were they allowed to choose an item from a bag of candy. In the competition conditions, they were told the objective was to surpass the other competitors. Then, each participant was told that they had the option of continuing to the second phase. They were shown the nine different structure options, and it was explained to them, that they could construct as few or as many as they wished. They were asked to.

13 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 34 whatever they decided to do, fill out the data-recording sheet, with the time spent in that phase, the number of successful completed structures, and to answer the questionnaire on the back. If they did not immediately decline the second phase, the researcher then left, and told participants that she would retum in a couple of minutes to check on them. If participants continued on the second phase the researcher regularly checked in with the participants every few minutes. Once participants had ended the second phase by their own initiative, they were thanked for their time and given a debrief form. Results A 2x2 between participants ANOVA was conducted, and examined the main and interaction effects of competition and reward variables (see Appendix F). The number of structures completed in the second phase was tested for significance. The main effect of competition was tested, and there was found to be significant difference between the competition (M = 1.45) and no competition (M = 2.5) conditions, (p <.05, F(l,39)= 2.614). The main effect of reward, however, was not found to significantly different between the reward (M = 2.2) and no reward (M = 1.75) means (p >.05, F(l,39) = 0.485, n.s). The interaction effect was also found to be significant (p <.05, F (1,39) =1.347). This interaction effect can be seen in Figure 1. These analysis are in Appendix G

14 Mean Interaction Effects

15 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 36 Discussion Though no significance was found for the main effect of reward, the main effect of competition and the interaction effect were both found to be significant and thus the experimental hypothesis was accepted, and it was concluded that both competition and the interaction of reward and competition decrease intrinsic motivation. It is possible that extemal motivation, in this case candy rewards and friendly competition, draw the participant's attention away from the internal benefits and towards extemal rewards, thus when those extemal rewards are removed, the participant is still extemally focused. When they are no longer extemally rewarded, they lose motivation. Deci (1971), found that extemal rewards, in that case money, decreased intrinsic motivation. It was discussed however, that money may have had a different effect on intrinsic motivation than other extemal rewards. This may be an explanation for why no significant effect was found. Perhaps the rewards used in this study have a different effect than does money. It was surprising to the researcher that there was no main effect of reward, as expected, especially because in the validity questionnaire it was found that 85% of participants in reward conditions rated them as four out of five or higher on desirability scale. This might be explained by the fact that in the competition-reward conditions, only

16 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 37 one participant was given a reward, and in the no-competition-reward conditions, only those who met the criteria were given a reward, therefore not all participants in reward conditions actually received a reward. Therefore, though the rewards were desirable, perhaps it was the receiving of the reward that produces the effect on intrinsic motivation, not desirability. The researcher also had the chocolate bar and candy rewards, in an opaque plastic bag. Participants were told about the different reward options, however they were not shown them, and perhaps the visual aspect would have increased the saliency, and thus effect for all participants, regardless of whether they earned one or not. Another possibility is that perhaps if all participants in the reward conditions actually received a reward, significance would have been found. This might have been done by either giving all participants participation-based rewards, or by giving them performancebased rewards and not including those participants who did not qualify. Had the sample size allowed it, the present study could have employed the latter method, and perhaps had a better controlled reward condition. Another way to control for earning rewards would be to use a confederate, as was done in the Deci et al, (1981) study. In this way, all participants would be allowed to win, and no data would be discarded. The generalize-ability of this conclusion, however, can be questioned as the sample size was considerably small, and the participants were drawn from a pool of

17 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 38 university students, who do not represent the entire population. There were also yearly timing factors that most likely played a role in the results. The data was collected during the month of April, which is the beginning of the examination period, and thus students were likely either incredibly busy, or attempting to procrastinate. This may have contributed to polarization of results, where some participants spent an hour on the second phase to avoid studying, and others, spent no time on the second phase at all, decreasing the number of puzzles completed. On the validity questionnaire, participants were asked how much time pressure was felt in the second phase, on a scale of one to five. Thirty-five percent of participants said they felt time pressure in the second phase, rated greater than three out of five. The majority rated time pressure as two out of five, but the majority of those who said they did feel time pressure, had circled five, again suggesting a polarization of time commitment. The researcher had limited resources to gather participants as well, which accounts for the small sample size, and possibly an unrepresentative outcome of the main effect of reward. Subjects were found by convenience sample only, and were asked in public areas where they were sitting, such as cafeterias. This too creates a problem, as the majority of people sitting in the cafeteria have some extra time. Considering that most participants said that they had felt no time pressure, it can be assumed that the sample

18 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 39 was taken from a relatively free group, which may have influenced the data. Deci et al.'s (1981) participants had already committed a certain amount of time to the experiment, and thus time pressure was not a factor in their research. The present study by necessity had to work in the participant's schedules and this may have played a factor in the amount of time they could devote to the second phase. Though random sampling was used, this time pressure could have contributed to the lack of significance in the main effect of reward because of such small sample size. Another factor to consider is whether or not adding one completed structure to the total when it was indicated that the participant would have continued had they the time, was an accurate manipulation that adequately represented the motivation of the participant. Perhaps a rating scale would have been better to determine how many more puzzles they would complete if they could. The researcher tried to correct for interruptions and influences in the second phase that were present in the Herba study as much as possible by encouraging the participants to individually complete the second phase. Though participants said they understood and agreed, they typically did not rid themselves of distraction or influence, especially in the competition phase. Though they were told to work separately, the researcher could not force participants to separate, and many previously competing participants sat together

19 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 40 and talked and continued competing in the second phase. Because of this, the researcher tried to encourage participants to work on separate puzzles, to decrease the level of competitive comparison between them. Though the slight continued competition did not seem to eliminate the significant effect of competition on decreasing intrinsic motivation, it creates a confound that was not controlled for. One barrier that the researcher found in terms of experimental control was that participants would not compete with other participants they were not familiar with. The researcher tried to control for familiarity among competitors, which may have played a role in the lack of significance in the Herba study, by randomly assigning participants who were not acquainted with one another to competition conditions. When this was tried however, people declined participation. Despite this issue, significance was still found. Whether or not this has an effect on intrinsic motivation could be further examined in future studies by comparing familiar and unfamiliar competitors. Because this study used similar methods to the Herba (2009) study, but found significance, it can be assumed that the added controls were responsible for the differing outcomes. Herba found that few participants in the competition conditions had felt competition, however in the present study, 70% of participants in those conditions found competition at a level of four out of five or higher. This may be due to the fact that the

20 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 41 researcher tried to instill a sense of competition between the participants by encouraging their friendly banter, and using phrases such as "On your mark, get set, go!" Males are well known for their competitive behaviours. They are often bantering amongst themselves and trying to one-up each other. It may even be said that competition is more salient for males than it is for females, and this may provide an explanation behind the significance found. Perhaps the saliency of the competition felt was strong enough to draw all motivational focus away from intrinsic sources towards extemal. If this is the case, then during the second phase, when competition was not encouraged and participants were encouraged to work on separate puzzles, intrinsic motivation suffered, and the insufficient external motivation led to decreased performance. The researcher also found that even in the no-competition conditions, there was competition inherent in the attitudes of men. The majority of participants wanted to know what the average time was, and if they had beaten it for a specific stmcture. Perhaps this form of indirect competition has an increasing effect on intrinsic motivation. These two forms of competition, both direct (with another person), and indirect, (with a more abstract competitor) could be tested to determine if they have differing effects on intrinsic motivation.

21 ' The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 42 '\h there were extraneous variables controlled for in this study, and elements f ' ib&i were improved from the Herba study, perhaps there are still highly influencing variables that need to be addressed, perhaps best suited for funded research: research with C#C. ^ks- % more resources. A larger population to examine would be beneficial, as would true ' random sampling. This would provide stronger support for the theory of external effects, <m intrinsic motivation, and could have many practical implications in the workplace. f ^ home and in education, as motivation is a universal drive that affects almost all human behaviour.

22 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 43 References Abrams, J., Betley, G., Deci, E., Kahle, J., & Porac, J. (1981). When Trying to Win; Competition and Intrinsic Motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7, 79^83. Collins, M., Conti, R., Picariello, M. (2001). The Impact of Competition on Intrinsic Motivation and Creativity: Considering Gender, Gender Segregation and Gender Role Orientation. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, Herba, K. (2009). The Effect of Male Competition and External Reward on Intrinsic Motivation. Huron college Journal of Learning and Motivation, Roller, J. (1999). Soma Cubes. Mathematische Basteleien. Retrieved March 29, 2010, from

23 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males Instructions Sheet: Appendix A Phase 1: Arrange the soma puzzle into a 3X3 cube, as shown: Condition I: Competition - Reward You will be competing against another person to see who can complete this structure first. Whoever completes the structure first will get their choice of reward from the reward bag. Condition II: Competition-No-Reward You will be competing against another person to see who can complete this structure first. Condition III: No-Competition-Reward If you complete this structure you can choose a reward from the reward bag. Condition IV: No-Competition-No-Reward Complete this structure.

24 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males Appendix B Soma Puzzles

25 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 46 Appendix C Instruction Sheet Phase 2 instructions sheets Phase 2: Move away from other people and distractions and try to build as many of these figures as you can. Feelfireeto stop at any time. Please record the time spent on these puzzles overall and how many you completed, on the data sheet provided: The Bed The Castle The Pyramid

26 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 47 The Gallows The Scorpion The Crystal

27

28 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 49 Appendix D Data Recording Sheet Time started on puzzles in Part 2: Time finished puzzles in Part 2: _ Puzzle Completed? Time: The Bed Y / N The Castle Y / N The Pyramid Y / N The Church Y / N The Tunnel Y / N The Snake Y / N The Gallows Y / N The Scorpion Y / N The Crystal Y / N I wanted to continue building puzzles, despite stopping: Y / N

29 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 50 Appendix E Condition I: Competition- Reward Did you finish the first puzzle before the other participant? Y N Strongly Disagree Disagree Unsure Agree Strongly Agree I felt competition between myself and the other participant I enjoyed the competition between myself and the other participant The reward options were desirable I enjoyed doing the first set of puzzles I enjoyed doing the second set of puzzles I was under time pressure during second phase (class, appointments etc) Condition II: Competition - No-Reward Did you finish the first puzzle before the other participant? Y N Strongly Disagree Disagree Unsure Agree Strongly Agree I felt competition between myself and the other participant I enjoyed the competition between myself and the other participant I enjoyed doing the first set of puzzles 1 enjoyed doing the second set of puzzles 1 was under time pressure during second phase (class, appointments etc)

30 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 51 Condition III: No-Competition-Reward Strongly Disagree Disagree Unsure Agree Strongly Agree The reward options were desirable I enjoyed doing the first set of puzzles I enjoyed doing the second set of Puzzles I was under time pressure during second phase (class, appointments etc) Condition IV: No-Competition-No-Reward Strongly Disagree Disagree Unsure Agree Strongly Agree I enjoyed doing the first set of puzzles I enjoyed doing the second set of Puzzles I was under time pressure during second phase (class, appointments etc)

31 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 52 Appendix F Competition No Competition X,n=5 X,i2=3 X2,l=l X212=0 X3ii=2 X312-2 X4ii=2 X412=0 X51,=0 X512=0 Reward X61,=0 X6,2=10 X.i, = 2.2 X7i,=2 X712=0 Xgii^l X9ii=l Xioii=2 Xgi2=2 X9,2=0 Xioi2=2 x.ir=i.6 X.,2=1.9 Xi21 = l Xi22=4 X221 = l X222=0 X321=3 X322=3 X42I=2 X422=0 X521 = l X522=6 No Reward X621=2 X622=3 X.2.= 1.75 X721 = l X722=2 X821=2 X822=4 X921=0 X922=6 Xi021=0 X 1022=3 x.2r=i.3 X.22=3.1 X..i= 1.45 X,.2 = 2.5 X.. = 1.975

32 The Effects of Competition and Reward on Intrinsic Motivation in Males 53 Appendix G Tests of Between-Subjects Effects Dependant Variable: Structures Completed Source Type III Sum of df Mean F Significance Squares Square Corrected Model Intercept Competition Reward Competition*Reward Error Total Corrected Total