Participation in Team Sports Can Eliminate the Effect of Social Loafing

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1 Article Participation in Team Sports Can Eliminate the Effect of Social Loafing Perceptual and Motor Skills 0(0) 1 15! The Author(s) 2016 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.com/journalspermissions.nav DOI: / pms.sagepub.com Stanisław H. Czyz_ Physical Activity, Sports and Recreation Research Focus Area, North-West University, Potchefstroom, Republic of South Africa; Department of Sport Didactics, University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland Andrzej Szmajke Institute of Psychology, Opole University, Poland Ankebé Kruger Physical Activity, Sports and Recreation Research Focus Area, North-West University, Potchefstroom, Republic of South Africa Magdalena Kübler Department of Sport Didactics, University School of Physical Education, Wrocław, Poland Abstract The effect known as Ringelmann effect states that as group size increases, individual behavior may be less productive. If this decrease in productivity in groups is attributed to a decrement in individual motivation, it is called social loafing. We tested hypotheses that the collectivism associated with participation in team sports would reduce the level of social loafing compared to people who were not involved in team sports. In one experiment, participants (n ¼ 72; M age ¼ 21.7 years, SD ¼ 2.0) had to pull a rope individually and collectively. Groups of two, three, four, and six persons were formed from among individuals with no previous sports experience, and of those who had engaged in individual and team sports. For each team, the sum of individual achievements of the individuals constituting a team was computed. This sum served as the anticipated result (expected value). The expected values were later compared to the actual achievements, i.e., the value achieved by the whole Corresponding Author: Stanisław H. Czyz_, Physical Activity, Sports and Recreation Research Focus Area, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, 2520 Potchefstroom, Republic of South Africa. stachu.czyz@gmail.com

2 2 Perceptual and Motor Skills 0(0) team. The results of the study suggested that previous experience in collective (team) sports eliminated the effect of social loafing. Keywords Performance, team sports, social loafing Introduction A tendency to put in less effort when working in a team compared to working individually is known as the Ringelmann effect (Ingham, Levinger, Graves, & Peckham, 1974). The discovery of this phenomenon is attributed to Max Ringelmann (as cited in Kravitz & Martin, 1986), who observed that the result of teamwork is not the sum of work put forth by each person individually. He further observed that the larger the team, the lower the effectiveness of individual team members. Ringelmann carried out experiments in which a rope is pulled first by an individual, and then by groups of individuals, referred to as teams. The decrease in the efficiency of rope-pulling by individual members of the team became more pronounced when seen in direct proportion to the increase in the number of team members pulling. Ringelmann did not explain this phenomenon as being the result of the presence of other people but rather as losses of coordination among team members (Kravitz & Martin, 1986). Steiner (1972) also suggested that one of the two explanations for the productivity decrease in teams may be due to coordination loss. However, he also pointed out that performance decrement may be due to reduced individual motivation (Steiner, 1972). Ingham et al. (1974) as well as Latane, Williams, and Harkins (1979) repeated Ringelmann s experiments using sophisticated rope-pulling equipment that maximized experimental control. They found that a substantial decrement in performance in teams may be partly attributed to the reduced individual effort and not to coordination loss. Latané et al. (1979) called this decreased performance of working collectively social loafing. Social loafing is defined as the reduction in motivation and effort of individuals when they work collectively (Karau & Williams, 1993) or as a decrease in individual effort when performing in groups as compared to when they perform alone (Latane et al., 1979, p. 822). This latter definition refers explicitly to what is called the Ringelmann effect. The phenomenon of social loafing has been observed in many studies, revealing that the tendency for an individual to exert less effort on collective than on individual tasks is quite frequent (Karau & Williams, 1993). There have been a few theories and hypotheses offered to explain social loafing (see for review Karau & Williams, 1993), for example, the social impact theory (Latane et al., 1979), arousal reduction and identifiability (Williams, Harkins, & Latane, 1981), evaluation potential (Harkins, 1987), dispensability of effort (Kerr, 1983),

3 Czyz_ et al. 3 matching of effort (Jackson & Harkins, 1985), or self-attention (Mullen, 1983). However, most of them are limited to explaining only one of the mechanisms underpinning social loafing (Karau & Williams, 1993) and few models are proposed to account for more variables moderating social loafing (e.g., Collective Effort Model; Karau & Williams, 1993). The phenomenon of social loafing can be observed regardless of the gender of an individual, his/her culture, or task assigned. It may have negative consequences for individuals, social institutions, and even for whole societies (Latane et al., 1979). The importance of social loafing also extends to sport (Carron & Burke, 2004). As social loafing occurs in many sports and in the performance of various tasks requiring physical activity, including shouting and clapping (Harkins, Latane, & Williams, 1980), swimming (Williams, Nida, Baca, & Latane, 1989), rowing (Anshel, 1995; Hardy & Crace, 1991), running (Huddleston, Doody, & Rudder, 1985), and 30-m sprint relay (Hoigaard, Tofteland, & Ommundsen, 2006). However, the aforementioned studies used athletes who participated in individual sport, i.e., a sport in which there is only one performer, and the final success depends on the performance of this individual as opposed to team sports, i.e., sports where there is more than one performer and the success depends on the performance of all the team members. On the other hand, there are few studies on team sport athletes. In the study by Anshel (1995), social loafing was eliminated in rowers. Anshel (1995) introduced elements of competition among people with a high level of skill in the field (rowers). Participants (experienced rowers) were asked to row as far as possible within 1.5 minutes. They rowed a longer distance during a short team assignment (rowing) as compared in the individual tests. Anshel (1995) suggested that the introduction of elements of competition among people with a high level of skills in the field can eliminate the effect of social loafing. He also pointed out that this task (rowing) had personal meaning for the rowers studied and task meaningfulness is a variable that reduces social loafing (Hardy & Latané, 1988). In a study by Høigaard et al. (2010), elite female handball players were tested with a self-reported questionnaire (Self-Reported Social Loafing Questionnaire) and it was found that their social loafing was relatively low. Høigaard et al. (2010) argued that several factors could have been responsible for the decrease in social loafing: the task was meaningful for participants (Hardy & Latané, 1988; Karau & Williams, 1993); the participants were experts in their field, and expertise is a factor that reduces social loafing (Hardy & Crace, 1991); participants performance could have been evaluated and identified and identifying and evaluating individual contribution reduce social loafing (Hardy & Latané, 1988; Høigaard & Ommundsen, 2007); and finally the participants were females and social loafing is lower in females (Karau & Williams, 1993; Kugihara, 1999). Considering previous findings on social loafing involving non-sport related tasks, i.e., cognitive, perceptual, evaluative (Karau & Williams, 1993), it could also be expected that in sports teams, social loafing may be absent or significantly reduced due to

4 4 Perceptual and Motor Skills 0(0) the fact that team-mates usually know each other. This variable eliminates or reduces social loafing (Karau & Williams, 1993). However, previous studies on social loafing using participants with team sports experience have identified a few factors that reduce social loafing among them, but none of them suggested that experience in team sport can actually be the factor per se that reduces social loafing in general. Therefore, in this study, the following question was posed: does the experience in teamwork associated with team sports affect social loafing among sportspeople in such tasks? This study is primarily exploratory in nature and it was therefore difficult to predict certain outcomes. However, for the purposes of the proposal, we advanced the following study hypothesis: the collectivism associated with participation in team sports would reduce the level of social loafing compared to people who were not involved in team sports. In order to verify that the personal experiences of those participating in team sports play a role in reducing social loafing, the research also included those practising individual sports. Perhaps people practising sport, regardless of the discipline, have a generally reduced level of social loafing, although previous research results in this area did not indicate such a possibility. We also decided to build teams consisting of people who have already had experience in team sports but they did not know each other as social loafing is reduced when individuals work with acquaintances. We also asked our participants to perform a simple task, as task meaningfulness also has a strongly consistent effect on social loafing. Finally, we used males, as social loafing is significantly lower in females (Karau & Williams, 1993). Method An experimental design with a quantitative research method was applied. A purposive sampling method was used, i.e., we chose participants because they possessed certain characteristics or traits (Jones, 2015). Permission for the participants to participate in experiment described in this manuscript was specifically approved and granted by the Committee for Ethics of the University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland and the North-West University Ethics Committee in South Africa. Research was conducted according to the Declaration of Helsinki and adhered to The Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research (commonly called the Belmont Report) promulgated in All participants took part in the study on a voluntary basis and could discontinue their participation at any time without any consequences. Participants The study included 72 men, 36 of whom were students recruited in Poland, and 36 in the Republic of South Africa. They were categorized into three groups

5 Czyz_ et al. 5 depending on their personal experiences in sports participation. The criterion for personal experience in sport was at least six months of training at a minimum of three times per week for at least 1 hour per workout, under the supervision of a qualified trainer and current competitor. Individual sports were defined as those in which there is only one performer, in which the final success depends on the performance of this individual. Team sports were defined as sports in which there is more than one performer and the success depends on the performance of all team members. Participants who had switched from team to individual sports (or vice versa) were excluded from the study. The participants had not trained together before, did not belong to the same sports teams, nor had they collaborated with each other. Participants in Poland were 36 men, all of whom were students, varying in terms of personal experience in organized sporting activities (sports status): nonparticipants in competitive sport (n ¼ 12, M age ¼ 20.7 years, SD ¼ 1.7) versus participants in individual sports (n ¼ 12, M age ¼ 21.6 years, SD ¼ 0.7) versus participants in team sports (n ¼ 12, M age 21.3 years, SD ¼ 1.7). Those practising individual sports had trained on average 8.6 years (SD ¼ 3.3), while those in team sports had practised 7.6 years (SD ¼ 3.1). Participants classified under team sports represented the following disciplines: seven of them football, two volleyball, and three basketball. Participants participating in individual sports practised the following disciplines: two were runners (200 m and 400 m), one triple jumper, one 3000 m steeplechase runner, one marathoner, one triathlete, one table tennis player, two martial arts practitioners, two swimmers, and one wall climber. Participants from South Africa involved 36 men, students from Republic of South Africa, differentiated by personal experience in competitive sporting activities (sports status) as follows: no experience in competitive sport (n ¼ 12, M age ¼ 22.2 years, SD ¼ 1.8) versus athletes experienced in individual sports codes (n ¼ 12, M age ¼ 22.6 years, SD ¼ 3.0) versus athletes participating in team sports codes (n ¼ 12, M age ¼ 21.7 years, SD ¼ 1.7). Those engaged in individual sport trained an average of 9.5 years (SD ¼ 3.3), while team sports athletes had trained 12.3 years (SD ¼ 3.0). All participants classified as team sports athletes played soccer. Among those participants classified as practising individual sports, four were sprinters, three were javelin throwers, and one each ran 110 m hurdles, 400 m, long distance, or did the high jump and triple jump. Procedure The participants received background information about the study verbally during their classes and were invited to participate in the study, if they met the inclusion criteria regarding their sports status, health status (only healthy individuals were included), and personal relations (i.e., they could not train together, belong to the same teams, or cooperate with each other in other

6 6 Perceptual and Motor Skills 0(0) areas such as schools, university, etc.). Students who signed up first and met the aforementioned criteria were chosen. Participants performed a rope-pulling task originally used in by Ringelmann and shown in Figure 1(a) in Kravitz and Martin (1986). We used two ropes and a dynamometer. To measure the force pulling the rope, a dynamometer-dpu was used in Poland and Takei Physical Fitness Test Back Strength Dynamometer T.K.K in South Africa. At the opposite ends of the dynamometer were screws on shackles, to which cables were attached, one of which was to mount the dynamometer. The first rope, with a length of 4 m, was attached to the metal barriers (mounted Figure 1. The percentage of group achievement (GP%) for groups of various numbers. On the x-axis, the numbers of individuals in teams are provided (x ¼ 2, 3, 4, 6 members) formed of people: N non-training, I individual sports, and T team sports codes. If the group s actual value (RV) achieved during testing was equal to the expected value (EV; calculated as the sum of the results of the individuals forming the team), the GP was equal 100%. If the group performed better than it was expected, the GP was higher than 100%, and vice versa, if the real value was lower than expected (EV) the GP was below 100%, e.g., if all teams consisting of team sports athletes performed better in teams than individually (than expected value), i.e., they performed better than 100%. Mean and standard deviations are indicated (brackets). RV: real value; EV: expected value.

7 Czyz_ et al. 7 at 1.4 m high). The second rope, 10 m in length, was the actual rope used in the experiment. Six strips of tape were placed at 1-m intervals to indicate the positions of the participants. The first marker was located at a distance of 3 m from the dynamometer. Task The participants performed a total of 10 pulls: two individually, two in pairs, in teams of three, four, and six. In order to avoid muscle soreness or fatigue, there was a 2-minute break after the completion of two trials. The participants were then randomly paired. After completing two trials, there was a further 2-minute break, and draws were made for teams of three. A similar method was used with the teams of four and six. Each attempt lasted 5 seconds, during which the maximum value obtained on the dynamometer was read, and the participants were asked to change places with lines (i.e., rotate from the beginning to the end of the rope) that did not pertain to the individual trial. Participants performed two trials to minimize incidental measurements. We also wanted to minimize the influence of (potentially) confounded variables (like e.g., preferences regarding the pulling place, using the dominant side of the body which tends to be stronger, etc.) or motivational factors (e.g., seeing someone you like in front of you) that could have blurred our results, although, there is no evidence that these variables may mask or affect social loafing. Analysis During the experiment, the maximum force with which the rope was pulled was measured (Force, kg). The indicator of the result (Real Value, RV) was the average of two trials expressed as 0.5 kgf. For each of the teams, the anticipated result (Expected Value, EV) was calculated as the sum of the results of the individuals forming the team. The indicator of achievement for each group was calculated (Group Performance, GP) and expressed as the difference between the expected and actual value (GP ¼ EV RV). The percentage indicator of group achievement (%GP) was calculated as: GP ¼ RV EV 100 In all statistical analyses, the unit of analysis was the GP indicator of the particular team. So, if the group s actual value (RV) achieved during testing was equal to the EV, the GP was equal 100%. If the group performed better than expected (EV), the GP was higher than 100%, and vice versa, if the RV was lower than expected (EV), the GP was below 100%.

8 8 Perceptual and Motor Skills 0(0) The homogeneity of variance (Levene s test was applied) was not equal for compared groups. The normality of the distribution (Shapiro Wilk test was applied) was not confirmed in a few groups, either. Therefore, the main hypothesis of this study, to wit, the decrease of the social loafing in teams composed of team sport athletes, was tested using the Kruskal Wallis test. The dependent variable was GP, and the grouping was number of participants pulling the rope and their sports status. The multiple comparisons of mean ranks for groups were applied if the main effect turned out to be significant. The Wilcoxon Matched Pairs test was performed verifying the significance of the difference between the actual value (RV) of a given team and EV. We analyzed all 72 participants data together since the number of observations is a crucial factor for drawing sensible conclusions. As found by Karau and Williams (1993) in their meta-analysis on social loafing, only a handful of prior studies have directly examined culture in social loafing and they produced contradictory results. Moreover, social loafing was prevalent across cultures (Karau & Williams, 1993). Therefore, we assumed that cultural influence could be omitted and we could analyze both groups of participants together. Results Descriptive statistics In the case of the groups formed of members engaged in team sports, %GP turned out to be higher than other groups (Figure 1). Furthermore, in the groups with experience in team sports, regardless of the size of the group, the percentage indicator of achievement was higher than 100% (average GP%, respectively: two-member groups % 11.65, three-member groups % 16.32, four-member groups , and six-member groups ). By comparison, only in the case of two-member groups, comprising those training in individual sports, was this rate higher than 100%. In other cases, the percentage indicator of achievement was lower than 100% for groups comprising nontraining individuals (GP%, respectively; for two-member groups , three-member groups 78.82% 5.43, four-member groups , and six-member groups ), while in those training individual sports (GP%, respectively: two-member groups , three-member groups 94.22% 9.22, four-member groups , and six-member groups ). This index decreased in line with the increase in the number of members of the group. EVs versus actual values (RV) analysis In the case of groups formed of non-training individuals, the results anticipated, as calculated for teams of two, three, and four persons, were significantly higher

9 Czyz_ et al. 9 than those actually achieved by these groups (Table 1). In the case of groups created from those training in individual sports, only in teams of four did the differences between EV and RV turn out to be statistically significant (p <.01). The four-person teams achieved bigger RV than it was expected (EV). The differences between EV and RV in groups composed of team sports athletes proved to be statistically non-significant (p >.05), while only in the case of two-member teams was RV greater than EV. The RVs for all teams consisting of team-sport training individuals were higher than EVs. It was also noticed for two-member groups created from those training individual sports. Table 1. The results of the Wilcoxon Matched Pairs test between the expected results (EV) and actual (RV) for groups created with non-training persons, those training individual sports, and those in team sports. Group N Value M SD Z p Non-training 2 RV *.002 EV RV *.01 EV RV *.02 EV RV EV Individual 2 RV EV RV EV RV *.03 EV RV EV Team sports 2 RV *.03 EV RV EV RV EV RV EV Note: RV: real value; EV: expected value; N: number of participants pulling rope. *p <.05.

10 10 Perceptual and Motor Skills 0(0) GP indicator analysis A Kruskal Wallis Test for groups consisting of non-trained versus training individual sport versus training team sports athletes was performed, H(2, N ¼ 90) ¼ 51.77, p <.001. In multiple comparison of mean ranks for three groups, the GP value in groups consisting of non-training participants (Mdn GP ¼ 21.10) was significantly lower than in groups created from participants training individual sports codes (Mdn GP ¼ 45.77) and team sports codes (Mdn GP ¼ 69.63), z ¼ 3.65, p <.001 and z ¼ 7.19, p <.001, respectively. Differences between groups comprising those practising team and individual sports were also statistically significant, z ¼ 3.53, p ¼.001. Likewise, analyses of differences between two-person groups yielded similar results, with a main effect of H (2, N ¼ 36) ¼ 19.75, p < A significantly lower GP was received by the group consisting of non-training persons (Mdn GP ¼ 7.67), compared with groups composed of people practising individual sports codes (Mdn GP ¼ 22.08) and team sports codes (Mdn GP ¼ 25.75), Tukey HSD test p ¼.001, multiple comparison of mean ranks: z ¼ 3.35, p ¼ 002 and z ¼ 4.20, p <.001, respectively. The differences between groups comprising people practising individual sports compared with groups composed of team sports athletes were not statistically significant. Similar relationships between groups comprising people with different sports status were found in the case of three-person groups with a main effect of H(2, N ¼ 24) ¼ 17.06, p <.001. The differences between groups composed of nontraining persons (Mdn GP ¼ 4.75) and groups comprising those practising team sports (Mdn GP ¼ 19.25) as well as training in individual sports (Mdn GP ¼ 13.50) appeared to be significant, given the multiple comparison of mean ranks: z ¼ 2.47, p ¼.039 and z ¼ 4.10, p <.001, respectively. No significant difference was found between groups composed of people practising individual sports and those training in team sports. The only significant difference, with a main effect of H(2, N ¼ 18) ¼ 12.77, p ¼.002, was noticed between the four-member groups of non-training participants (Mdn GP ¼ 4.16) and team sports (Mdn GP ¼ 15.16), multiple comparison of mean ranks: z ¼ 3.56, p ¼.001. Although the analysis of six-person groups yielded significant results, H(2, N ¼ 12) ¼ 7.38, p ¼.02, the multiple comparison of mean ranks did not show significant differences between groups, or the differences were marginal (among all groups at p ¼.055). Discussion The research question examined was whether sports status, expressed as a sport that is cultivated either as a collective sports discipline (team) or an individual sport, as well as the lack of any experience in practising sport, affects the occurrence of social loafing. The results supported the hypothesis that the collectivism

11 Czyz_ et al. 11 associated with participation in team sports may reduce the level of social loafing compared to people who were not involved in team sports. The results of the experiment suggested that in those who have previously practised team sports codes, the effect of social loafing is significantly reduced. In addition, more effort was shown during team tasks than during individual ones. The results also suggest that sport in general, even individual sports, reduces social loafing. In groups comprising people who trained in individual sports, the actual results were lower than expected, but this difference was not as large as in the case of groups of those not training in sport at all, while in the case of two-member groups, the actual results were better than expected. The more individuals within the group, the lower the effort made by individual members of the group. This rule, however, did not apply in the case of groups formed of individuals who had previously practised team sports: the larger groups had higher achievements (expressed as a percentage of GP index) than the groups of fewer members. The effect of sports status on the level of occurrence of social loafing was consistent with a previous study related to rowing (Anshel, 1995). In rowers with higher skills, social loafing was lower, which is in line with Hardy and Crace s (1991) suggestion that expertise is a factor that decreases social loafing. We also used experienced team athletes they had trained more than 12 years on average. It could be a factor that reduced social loafing in our team sports athletes. On the other hand, social loafing in individual sports athletes was increased as comparted to team sports athletes. We could therefore have claimed that experience in team sport is a factor that reduces social loafing. It has to be noted, however, that individual sports athletes trained more than eight years on average, i.e., around four years less than team sports athletes. As a result, expertise itself cannot be used to explain the results, without more research. It is also worth mentioning that expertise may be a factor reducing social loafing, however, the expertise has to be related to the task performed during testing and has to be meaningful to participants (Hardy & Crace, 1991). Certainly, rope-pulling was not related to their trained sports and was relatively simple and complexity of a task is a factor that affects social loafing (Karau & Williams, 1993): the more complex a task, the less likely an individual is to engage in social loafing. If the task makes sense on a personal level, the participants do not demonstrate the effects of social loafing, or the social loafing level is reduced (Karau & Williams, 1993). However, one could hardly assume that rope-pulling was an important task for the participants and as a result it probably cannot explain the findings. Therefore, there may be a different factor responsible for absence of social loafing in individuals who were engaged in team sports. We cannot explain the absence of social loafing in team sports athletes from the identifiability and evaluation perspective (Hardy & Latane, 1988; Høigaard & Ommundsen, 2007; Williams et al., 1989). When individual contributions in collective activities can be evaluated and identified that individual is less likely to

12 12 Perceptual and Motor Skills 0(0) loaf. However, in our procedure, we used only one dynamometer that measured the outcome of the whole team. We were not able to identify how much each individual contributes to the outcome and the participants knew it. We could therefore expect that social loafing will be increased regardless of sports status. However, it was absent in team sports athletes. The rope-pulling is the task in which the responsibility and the scope of responsibility are not distinguished between individuals in team. All team members have the same responsibility and scope of responsibility. As the result, neither this factor can be used to explain the absence of social loafing in team sports athletes. Høigaard et al. (2010) reported that the more clearly defined the scope of responsibility, the lower the tendency for social loafing reported by elite handball players. In our opinion, the absence of social loafing can be explained by the presence of sports status, i.e., the absence or presence of personal experience related to the practice of team sports, as was originally suggested by Szmajke and Mielczarek (2004). Any final success achieved by a team is also a personal success for each of its players. The realization of personal objectives occurs via the realization of objectives shared by the whole team (e.g., victory, awards, fame, and money). In the case of disciplines such as soccer, basketball, volleyball, or team handball, individual players may receive a smaller reward compared to those which could be achieved as a team. There are various titles and gratifications for the individual, e.g., awards like most valuable player. However, one cannot obtain the highest reward, that being the title of champion, individually. The most coveted of awards can only be obtained through teamwork. This is reflected in cases where accomplished players attempt to change clubs, and sometimes even nationality, to join better teams, whose potential could allow them to achieve higher personal goals. Competitors very often are judged by their teamwork. Cooperation within a team is, therefore, a value in itself. One may be tempted to hypothesize that athletes in team sports codes may apply a lower level of effort in undertaking individual work than group work because the realization of individual objectives follows from the achievement of the team. However, the latter should be further explored. We must acknowledge that there are limitations to this study. The first limitation refers to the relatively limited number of teams tested. Although we recruited 72 participants, the number of teams decreased as the number of individuals constituting the teams increased. For example, we tested 36 dyads, 24 three-person teams, etc., whereas there were only 12 six-person teams. It means that we compared four six-person teams of non-training, training individual sports, and team sports. As a result, the larger the number of individuals in teams, the weaker the statistical reasoning becomes. We could argue that p ¼.01 for an experiment with 10 subjects provides more evidence against the null hypothesis than p ¼.01 for an experiment with, say, 300 subjects (Wagenmakers, 2007, p. 779), however, considering statistical criteria

13 Czyz_ et al. 13 (distribution, homogeneity, etc.), it could be worth replicating the study with a larger number of participants or with the equipment that can evaluate individual contribution to collective work. A second limitation is associated with cultural factors. The participants were recruited from two countries that are very different in terms of culture for example, according to CIA s World Factbook (2014), there are following ethnic groups in South Africa: Black 80.2%, White 8.4%, Colored 8.8%, Indian/Asian 2.5%; whereas in Poland we find almost 100% White (Caucasian). It can be argued that culture is not an important factor in social loafing. The meta-analysis by Karau and Willimas (1993) showed that prior studies on culture are limited and have produced contradictory results. The only exception was for Eastern cultures in which the magnitude of social loafing was reduced. Although our participants were from the African and European contexts, caution should be exercised in dealing with the results and the possibility to extrapolate the results. Further research in this area using other tasks, and allowing for the evaluation of individual contributions to teamwork, is necessary. Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Funding The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. References Anshel, M. H. (1995). Examining social loafing among elite female rowers as a function of task duration and mood. Journal of Sport Behavior, 18, Carron, A. V., & Burke, S. M. (2004). Self-presentation and group influence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 16, CIA s World Factbook. (2014). Retrieved from resources/the-world-factbook (accessed 29 April 2016) Hardy, C. J., & Crace, R. K. (1991). The effects of task structure and teammate competence on social loafing. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 13, Hardy, C. J., & Latane, B. (1988). Social loafing and cheerleaders: Effects of team membership and competition. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 10, Harkins, S. G. (1987). Social loafing and social facilitation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 23, Harkins, S. G., Latane, B., & Williams, K. D. (1980). Social loafing: Allocating effort or taking it easy?. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 16, Høigaard, R., Fuglestad, S., Peters, D. M., Cuyper, B. D., Backer, M. D., & Boen, F. (2010). Role satisfaction mediates the relation between role ambiguity and social loafing among elite women handball players. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 22,

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15 Czyz_ et al. 15 Author Biographies Stanisbaw H. Czyz_ has obtained his PhD in 2002 in physical culture sciences. He focuses on motor learning and control. Currently, as a senior lecturer, he is with Physical Activity, Sport, and Recreation focus research group at North-West University in South Africa. Andrzej Szmajke (21 October June 2016) was one of the best renowned Polish social psychologist. He authored or co-authored more than 90 scientific publications. Ankebe Kruger obtained PhD in Sport Science in 2006 and a MSc in Counselling Psychology in 2016 from the North-West University in South Africa. She is a lecturer at the North-West University South Africa with a special interest in Sport Psychology. She is currently registered as an Intern Counselling Psychologist at the HPCSA. Magdalena Ku bler is a senior lecturer at the University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland. She obtained PhD in physical education and specializes in issues related to methodology of school physical education, primarily in the assessment process and teacher s practical training.