Achievement Goals, Social Goals, and Students Reported Persistence and Effort in High School Physical Education

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1 Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 2006, 25, Human Kinetics, Inc. Achievement Goals, Social Goals, and Students Reported Persistence and Effort in High School Physical Education Jianmin Guan University of Texas at San Antonio Ping Xiang, Ron McBride, and April Bruene Texas A&M University This study examined the relationship between achievement goals and social goals and explored how studentsʼ achievement goals and social goals might affect their reported persistence and effort expended toward physical education in high school settings. Participants were 544 students from two high schools in the southwest U.S. Multiple regression analysis revealed that social responsibility goals represented the greatest contributor to studentsʼ expenditure of persistence and effort toward physical education. This was followed by mastery-approach goals, mastery-avoidance goals, and performance-approach goals. In addition, girls reported significantly higher values on both social relationship goals and responsibility goals than did boys. Findings revealed that students had multiple goals for wanting to succeed in physical education; using both achievement goals and social goals when studying student motivation and achievement in high school physical education settings is recommend. Key words: achievement goals, social goals, physical education, high school The relationship between physical activity and health is well documented. Regular physical activity can reduce the morbidity and mortality rates from cardiovascular disease, hypertension, and complications of overweight and obesity among both younger and older adults (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996). In addition, research suggests that children who are physically active tend to continue those active lifestyles in adulthood (Shepherd & Trudeau, 2000). Because of this, regular physical activity has become a national priority. Despite these well-documented benefits, however, interest and participation in physical education has been shown to decline during the teen years (Sallis & McKenzie, 1991; Van Wersch, Trew, & Turner, 1992). Given this trend toward decreased Guan is with the Department of Health & Kinesiology, University of Texas at San Antonio, 6900 North Loop 1604 West, San Antonio, TX 78249; Xiang, McBride, and Bruene are with the Department of Health and Kinesiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX Guan(58) 58 1/10/06, 8:31:32 AM

2 Achievement Goals and Social Goals 59 activity, researchers and physical educators need to examine ways to motivate and enhance interest in physical education in adolescents. Currently, the dominant theoretical framework guiding research on motivation in both classroom and physical activity settings is achievement goal theory (Chen, 2001). Achievement goals are conceptualized as the purpose (Ames, 1992a; Maehr, 1989) or cognitive-dynamic focus (Elliot, 1997) of competence-relevant activity. To date, most achievement goal researchers use a performance mastery goal dichotomous model to assess individual differences in goal orientation. Individuals with a mastery goal orientation focus on the goals of learning, personal improvement, understanding of their work, or mastery based on self-reference standards (Ames, 1992a, 1992b; Meece, Blumenfeld, & Hoyle, 1988; Nicholls, 1989). Individuals with a performance goal orientation, on the other hand, focus on demonstrating superior ability relative to others, surpassing normative-based standards, or achieving success with little effort (Ames, 1984, 1992b; Covington, 1984). In recent years additional models to the dichotomous model have been developed that include both the trichotomous and the 2 2 model. In the trichotomous model, the mastery goal construct remained the same, but the performance goal construct was partitioned into performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals. A performance-approach goal focuses on the attainment of favorable judgments of competence, whereas a performance-avoidance goal focuses on the avoidance of unfavorable judgments of competence (Elliot & Church, 1997). From the trichotomous model, Elliot and McGregor (2001) proposed a 2 2 achievement goal model in which the mastery goal construct, like the performance goal construct, was also partitioned into mastery-approach and mastery-avoidance goals. Individuals with a mastery-approach goal orientation try to focus on mastering tasks, learning, and understanding. Individuals with a mastery-avoidance goal orientation try to avoid misunderstanding, not learning, or not mastering a task. To verify the 2 2 model, Elliot and McGregor developed a 2 2 achievement goal questionnaire. Results of both exploratory factor and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) strongly supported the existence of the four achievement goal constructs proposed in the 2 2 model among college students in the academic domain. Furthermore, the CFA analysis showed that the 2 2 model provided a better fit to the data than the trichotomous model. For an in-depth review of the 2 2 model, see Elliot and McGregor. In the last decade, research on achievement goals has extended to the physical education domain. This work focused primarily on individual differences in goal perspectives or dispositional goal orientations. Walling and Duda (1995), for example, found that students with high mastery goals were more likely to express the belief that success in physical education was achieved through intrinsic interest, high effort, and cooperation than those with low mastery goals. In contrast, highperformance goal-oriented students tended to believe that success was achieved when they possessed higher ability more than the low-performance goal-oriented students. They also reported that students with high mastery or low performance goals were more likely to reject the notion that success in physical education stemmed from learning how to skillfully deceive the teacher. Moreover, researchers reported grade-related changes in achievement goals in physical education settings. Xiang and Lee (2002), for example, examined grade-related differences in achievement goals. They found that students in the 05Guan(58) 59 1/10/06, 8:31:34 AM

3 60 Guan et al. upper grade levels tended to be inclined more toward a performance goal orientation than students in the lower grade level. Their finding implies the need for physical educators to consider studentsʼ ages when attempting to motivate them to learn. Xiang and Lee, however, found no gender differences in goal orientations in physical education settings. Similarly, Treasure and Roberts (1994), who investigated individualsʼ disposition toward mastery and performance achievement goal orientation in a British adolescent population, also found no significant gender difference associated with the dispositional goal orientation. The extant literature shows that achievement goal research in physical education settings relies heavily on the traditional dichotomous achievement goal model. Few studies use Elliot and McGregorʼs (2001) 2 2 achievement goal model to explore and explain studentsʼ achievement goals and behaviors in physical education settings, particularly at the high school level. In concert with the emerging vision of achievement goal research in the academic domain, it seems reasonable to examine the efficacy of the 2 2 achievement goal model in physical activity settings. Although achievement goal research provides a clear understanding of student achievement motivation, students might have social reasons for trying to succeed academically. For example, a student might believe that the purpose of academic success is to gain peer approval. Urdan and Maehr (1995) defined social goals in the achievement situation as the perceived purposes for trying, or not trying, to achieve academically (p. 214). Researchers examining student social goals in classrooms reported at least two different types of social goals associated with studentsʼ academic success (Hicks, 1996; Hicks, Murphy, & Patrick, 1995; Patrick, Hicks, & Ryan, 1997). The first social goal has been called relationship and refers to an individualʼs desire to form and maintain positive peer relationships in school (Hicks). Parker and Asher (1987) found that individuals with unsatisfactory peer relationships were more likely to be at risk of academic and adjustment problems in later schooling and beyond. In addition, Hicks et al. (1995) reported that social-relationship goals were positively associated with both mastery goals and performance goals. Students who emphasized peer relationships were more likely to engage in academic work out of a desire to develop understanding and mastery (i.e., mastery goals) or to demonstrate their ability in comparison to others (i.e., performance goals). The second social goal is identified as responsibility and represents a desire to adhere to social rules and role expectations (Wentzel, 1991). Socially responsible individuals report that they want to follow rules and treat people with respect. Hicks et al. (1995) reported that social responsibility goals were positively associated with mastery goals and performance goals and negatively associated with extrinsic goals. Students who wanted to be socially responsible were likely to engage in academic work in order to obtain a personal sense of mastery or to demonstrate their ability in relation to others rather than out of a desire for extrinsic rewards (e.g., grades). The relationship between social goals and student academic success has stimulated a growing call for social goals to be considered in the study of achievement goals (e.g., Blumenfeld, 1992; Ford, 1992; Maehr & Nicholls, 1980; Urdan & Maehr, 1995). Both academic and social goals are important predictor variables of studentsʼ achievement (Wentzel, 1996). One example in physical education is that students often take a dance class to fulfill a social agenda (Hastie & Pickwell, 1996; 05Guan(58) 60 1/10/06, 8:31:36 AM

4 Achievement Goals and Social Goals 61 Shen, Chen, Tolley, & Scrabis, 2003). Thus, the sole use of achievement goals might oversimplify the complexity of student motivation in physical education settings. There is a need for researchers and practitioners to take a multiple achievement goal approach in order to understand relationships among student achievement goals, social goals, and achievement-related cognitions and behaviors. Furthermore, researchers in both classroom and physical education (e.g., Dweck, 1986; Elliot, McGregor, & Gable, 1999; Heckhausen, 1991; Xiang & Lee, 2002) consider persistence and effort to be important predictors of achievement outcomes. Persistence is defined as a continued investment in learning when obstacles are encountered, and effort refers to the overall amount of energy expended in the process of learning (Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997). Classroom research establishes a link between student achievement goals and persistence and effort. Elliot et al., for example, found that undergraduate studentsʼ mastery goals and performance-approach goals were positive predictors of persistence, effort, and exam performance, whereas performance-avoidance goals were negative predictors of exam performance. Additionally, Elliot et al. revealed that both persistence and effort were positive predictors of exam performance. These research findings, however, have been based on either the traditional dichotomous achievement goals model or traditional classroom settings. With the development of the 2 2 model and the documented influence of social goals on student academic success, further examinations of the relationships among achievement goals, social goals, and achievement outcomes including persistence and effort in physical education settings is warranted. Consequently, the purposes of this study were threefold: a) to employ the 2 2 achievement goal model to examine the relationship between four achievement goals and two social goals, b) to examine grade- and gender-related differences in achievement goals and social goals, and c) to examine the impact achievement goals and social goals might have on how students report the persistence and effort they expend toward physical education. Parents Method A total of 544 students (217 boys, 327 girls) from two high schools in the southwest U.S. served as participants in this study. Students consisted of 9th (50.5%), 10th (23.1%), 11th (17.2%), and 12th (9.2%) graders, and their ages ranged from 14 to 20 years (M = 16.43, SD = 1.23). The majority, 28.0%, were Hispanic American, with 27.4% African American, 25.0% Caucasian, 10.4% Asian- American, and 9.3% others. Instrumentation Participants completed the 31-item Achievement Goal Questionnaire Physical Education (AGQ PE). The AGQ PE includes the achievement goal scale, the social goal scale, and the persistence and effort scale (see Appendix). The format for all items is a 7-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (not at all true for me) through 7 (very true for me). The stem for all items is In my PE class... 05Guan(58) 61 1/10/06, 8:31:37 AM

5 62 Guan et al. Achievement Goal Scale. The 2 2 achievement goal scale consists of 12 items adapted from Elliot and McGregor (2001). These items reflect the four achievement goals: mastery approach, performance approach, performance avoidance, and mastery avoidance. Each achievement goal includes three items. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was employed to examine the construct validity of test scores produced by the 2 2 achievement goal scale. Multiple fit indices including the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) were employed to assess the adequacy of the 2 2 achievement goal model. The results from CFA strongly supported the 2 2 achievement goal model. All indexes (CFI =.95, TLI =.92, and RMSEA =.08) indicated that the 2 2 achievement goal scale represented an adequate fit to the current data. Cronbach alphas for the performance-approach, mastery-approach, performance-avoidance, and mastery-avoidance subscales were.82,.81,.74, and.80, respectively, indicating the score produced by the 2 2 achievement goal scale had acceptable internal consistency. Social Goal Scale. Patrick et al.ʼs (1997) 11-item social goal scale was adapted to assess studentsʼ social goals. Six items address relationship goals and five items address responsibility goals. CFA and Cronbachʼs alpha coefficients were again employed to examine the construct validity and internal reliability of test scores produced by the social goal scale. Multiple indices revealed that the social goal model represented an acceptable fit to the current data (CFI =.93, TLI =.91, and RMSEA =.08). Reliability analysis indicated that internal consistency of the social goal scale was acceptable with alpha coefficients of.82 and.76 for the responsibility goal and relationship goals, respectively. Persistence and Effort Scale. To assess persistence and effort constructs, eight items were adapted from Elliot (1997) and two from Wentzel (1996), with four items each assessing persistence and effort. Although persistence and effort represent two different constructs theoretically, previous studies (e.g., Dweck, 1999; Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Xiang & Lee, 2002) revealed that they could be combined into one single construct empirically. Because of this, a principle component factor analysis with VARIMAX rotation was conducted on the eight persistence and effort items to determine whether or not they represented a single construct. The results revealed that all eight items were retained in one factor. The factor accounted for 59.23% of the variance and all factor loadings equaled or exceeded.66 (.66 81). The reliability analysis showed a high internal consistency (Cronbachʼs coefficient α =.90) for this factor. Based on these results, persistence and effort were considered a single factor and named persistence/effort in the subsequent data analyses. Procedures After obtaining institutional and school district approval and informed consent from the participants, the AGQ PE was administered by the researchers during regularly scheduled physical education classes; students took approximately 25 minutes to complete it. Course content was not altered nor was the normal routine of the classes modified. To ensure the independence of studentsʼ responses, the researchers had students spread out so that they could not see one anotherʼs 05Guan(58) 62 1/10/06, 8:31:39 AM

6 Achievement Goals and Social Goals 63 responses. In addition, the researchers carefully monitored students throughout data collection and answered their questions as necessary. To minimize studentsʼ tendency to give socially desirable responses, the researchers encouraged the students to answer as truthfully as they could and ensured them that their responses would not affect their grades. They were also informed that their teachers would not have access to their responses. Data Analysis Descriptive statistics were used to provide a summary of studentsʼ achievement goals, social goals, and their reported persistence/effort expended toward physical education. Pearson-product correlations were performed to examine relationships between achievement goals and social goals. Simultaneous multiple regression analysis was employed to examine how achievement goals and social goals might affect student reports of their persistence/effort expended toward physical education. Finally, a 2 (Gender) 4 (Grade level) multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to examine gender and grade differences among the participants on the four achievement goals (mastery approach, performance approach, performance avoidance, and mastery avoidance) and the two social goals (relationship and responsibility) in physical education. Results Descriptive statistics of achievement goals, social goals, and persistence/effort are presented in Table 1. Of the six goals, students reported the highest value on social responsibility goals, followed by social-relationship goals, mastery-approach goals, performance-avoidance goals, performance-approach goals, and masteryavoidance goals. The intercorrelations among achievement goals and social goals indicated that all achievement goals and social goals were positively associated with one another (see Table 2). A multiple regression analysis revealed that social responsibility goals, mastery-approach goals, mastery-avoidance goals, and performance-approach goals were significant positive predictors of persistence/effort, whereas performanceavoidance goals and social relationship goals were not significant predictors of persistence/effort. Moreover, R 2 from this multiple regression analysis was.67, indicating a stronger linear relationship between the set of predictors (achievement goals and social goals) and persistence/effort. Prior to the 2 (Gender) 4 (Grade level) MANOVA analysis, the assumption of homogeneity of covariance was examined using the Box M test. The result revealed that the assumption was not met (Box M = , F = 1.304, p <.001). Because of this, we followed Olson (1979) and Tabachnick and Fidellʼs (1996) suggestion for using Pillaiʼs Trace instead of Wilksʼ Lambda to evaluate multivariate significance of main effects and interactions. The MANOVA yielded a significant main effect for gender, Pillaiʼs Trace =.045, F (6, 488) = 3.812, p <.001, η 2 =.016. Follow-up univariate ANOVAs revealed that girls placed significantly higher values on both social-relationship goals [F (1, 493) = 8.549, p <.01, effect size (f) =.132] and responsibility goals [F (1, 493) = , p <.01, effect size (f) =.190] than boys, 05Guan(58) 63 1/10/06, 8:31:40 AM

7 64 Guan et al. Table 1 Descriptive Data of Achievement Goals, Social Goals, and Persistence/Effort Males (n = 217) Full sample (N = 544) Grade 9 (n = 106) Grade 10 (n = 54) Grade 11 (n = 38) Grade 12 (n = 16) Variables M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD Pap Map Pav Mav Rel Res Per/eff Females (n = 329) Variables Pap Map Pav Mav Rel Res Per/eff Grade 9 (n = 167) Grade 10 (n = 71) Grade 11 (n = 55) Grade 12 (n = 34) M SD M SD M SD M SD Note. Pap = Performance-approach goal; Map = Mastery-approach goal; Pav = Performance-avoidance goal; Mav = Mastery-avoidance goal; Rel = Relationship goal; Res = Responsibility goal; Per/eff = Persistence/effort. 05Guan(58) 64 1/10/06, 8:31:42 AM

8 Achievement Goals and Social Goals 65 Table 2 Beta Weights and Correlations Among Achievement Goals and Social Goals Correlation Predictor Variables β t value p Performance approach goals Mastery approach goals ** 3. Performance avoidance goals **.508** 4. Mastery avoidance goals **.464**.357** 5. Relationship goals **.411**.284**.364** 6. Responsibility goals **.648**.465**.411**.538** ** p <.01 05Guan(58) 65 1/10/06, 8:31:43 AM

9 66 Guan et al. although no significant gender differences were found on the four achievement goals. In addition, the MANOVA revealed no significant main effect for grade or interaction between gender and grade. Discussion This study examined the relationship between achievement goals and social goals, as well as how these goals might affect student reports of the persistence and effort they expended toward physical education in high school settings. Previous research (e.g., Hicks et al., 1995) revealed that mastery goals were positively associated with both responsibility and relationship goals, whereas performance goals were positively related to relationship goals. The results from this study provided additional support to these findings in a physical education environment. Significant correlations between achievement goals and social goals clearly indicated that these goals do not function in isolation from one another and suggest a need to include social goals in research on motivation and achievement for a more thorough understanding of studentsʼ cognition, affect, and behavior in high school physical education settings. The multiple regression analysis revealed that mastery-approach goals significantly contributed to student reports of persistence and effort expended toward physical education. This result was consistent with those reported by Elliot et al. (1999), who found that college studentsʼ mastery goals and performance-approach goals were positive predictors of persistence and effort. The result also further supported Elliot and McGregorʼs (2001) proposition that the pursuit of masteryapproach goals can lead to a host of positive outcomes. Although no empirical data on mastery-avoidance goals in relation to achievement outcomes such as persistence and effort are available to date, Elliot (1999) provided the following hypothesis of mastery-avoidance goals: The pursuit of mastery-avoidance goals will be linked to some positive and some negative consequences, with the most positive consequences being for quantitative variables, such as persistence and effort expenditure, and the most negative consequences being for phenomenological variables such as intrinsic motivation and self-determination. (p. 182) This study revealed that mastery-avoidance goals had a positive impact on student reports of persistence and effort expended toward physical education and provided empirical evidence to partly support Elliotʼs hypothesis of mastery-avoidance goals. To fully support this hypothesis, follow-up study is needed to examine whether the pursuit of mastery-avoidance goals can lead to some negative consequences such as a negative relationship between mastery-avoidance goals and intrinsic motivation or self-determination. Elliot (1999) pointed out that the pursuit of performance-approach goals is posited to elicit similar processes and outcomes produced by mastery-approach goals when the focus of performance-approach goals can be congruent with individual motivational foundations (e.g., when undergirded by challenge cues or by need for achievement). Given that performance-approach goals are grounded in 05Guan(58) 66 1/10/06, 8:31:44 AM

10 Achievement Goals and Social Goals 67 the need for achievement and focused on positive possibilities, these goals are hypothesized to be positive predictors of persistence and effort (Elliot et al., 1999). Our data revealed that performance-approach goals significantly contributed to student reports of the persistence and effort they expended toward physical education, providing strong empirical support for this hypothesis. It should be noted, however, that the pursuit of performance-approach goals might lead to some negative outcomes when evoked by threat cues or undergirded by fear of failure (Elliot, 1999; Elliot et al., 1999). For example, Scantling, Stand, Lackey, and McAleese (1995) found that one of the major reasons students disliked physical education class was because of too much emphasis on winning and losing. Therefore, future research should explore how and when to apply performance-approach goals to physical education settings so that positive outcomes (e.g., absorption during task engagement, intrinsic motivation, and persistence and effort expenditures toward physical activity) might be generated. It is widely assumed (e.g., Elliot, 1999; Elliot & McGregor, 2001) that the pursuit of performance-avoidance goals would elicit negative affective, cognitive, and behavioral responses that lead to a host of negative outcomes. Therefore, performance-avoidance goals are predicted to be negatively related or unrelated to persistence and effort (Elliot et al., 1999). The results of the present study revealed that performance-avoidance goals did not positively affect student reports of persistence and effort expended toward physical education, which further confirmed the assumption that performance-avoidance goals are unrelated to positive outcomes. Previous studies using the dichotomous achievement goal model revealed a mixed pattern of results regarding the relationship between performance goals and persistence (Bouffard, Boisvert, Vezeau, & Larouche, 1995; Miller, Greene, Montalvo, Ravindran, & Nichols, 1996; Pintrich, Simith, Garcia, & McKeachie, 1993) or effort (MacIver, Stipek, & Daniels, 1991, Miller et al., 1996; Wentzel, 1996). The major reason for this mixed pattern is that performance goals were not partitioned into approach and avoidance forms of regulation (Elliot et al., 1999). Performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals are different types of goals and yield differential predictive results of persistence and effort (Elliot et al., 1999). The results from this study further confirmed that performance-approach goals and performance-avoidance goals are two differential predictors of student reports of their expenditure of persistence and effort toward physical education. The results also attest to the importance of partitioning performance goals into approach and avoidance forms of regulation because they produced differential results on student reports of the persistence and effort they expended toward physical education. Multiple regression analysis revealed that social responsibility goals represented the greatest contributor to student reports of persistence and effort expended toward physical education. This finding provided empirical evidence that studentsʼ goals to behave responsibly in physical education classes are significantly associated with their degree of participation. These results are in line with Hicks et al.ʼs 1995 study, which found that students wanting to be socially responsible were likely to engage in academic work in order to obtain a personal sense of mastery or to demonstrate their ability in comparison with others rather than out of a desire for extrinsic rewards (e.g., grades). These findings indicate the necessity for practitioners to 05Guan(58) 67 1/10/06, 8:31:45 AM

11 68 Guan et al. consider and capitalize on studentsʼ social goals (e.g., I try to do what the teacher asks me to do and Itʼs important to me that I follow class rules ) while conducting their physical education classes. For example, to promote student learning, physical educators should clearly communicate expectations, rules, and consequences in the beginning and frequently throughout the duration of the course. Unlike social responsibility goals, social relationship goals did not significantly contribute to student reports of persistence and effort expended toward physical education. Studentsʼ desire to form intimate relationships with their peers did not relate uniquely to their persistence and effort when achievement goals and social responsibility goals were considered. The result is contrary to previous findings reported by Wentzel and Watkins (2002). Their study showed a positive relationship between peer relationships and academic outcomes. A possible explanation might be that the students in this study did not value their physical education classes as much as they did other subjects. Follow-up study on this finding is required, however, to support or refute this supposition. No gender differences occurred across the four achievement goals, which is consistent with previous studies (e.g., Dunn, 2000; Treasure & Roberts, 1994). There were, however, gender differences in social goals. Girls reported higher values on social responsibility and relationship goals than did boys. Similar results have also been reported in academic settings (e.g., Hicks et al., 1995; Patrick et al., 1997; Ryan, Hicks, & Midgley, 1997; Wentzel, 1996). The findings from both physical education and academic settings seem to reflect that girls are more willing to value peer relationships, cooperate with others, and adhere to social rules and role expectations than boys. Given that few studies have examined gender differences in these two social goals in physical education settings, additional research is needed in this area. Past research examining grade-related changes in achievement goals (e.g., Hart, 1981; Nicholls, 1989; Xiang & Lee, 2002) revealed a trend whereby children start school with a mastery goal orientation but become progressively more performance oriented as they move through school. Our data, however, revealed no significant grade differences in achievement goals and social goals. A possible explanation for the inconsistency is that the questionnaire measures used in the present study were different from those in previous studies. The present study used the 2 2 achievement goal model, whereas previous studies used the dichotomous model, which failed to provide strong and clear support for the proposition that performance goals generate negative or maladaptive processes and outcomes (e.g., striving not to do worse than others). For instance, some studies (e.g., Elliot & Harackiewicz, 1996; Harackiewicz & Elliot, 1993) revealed that performance goals generated adaptive achievement behavior (e.g., striving to do better than others), whereas other research (e.g., Butler, 1992; Elliot & Church, 1997; Elliot & Dweck, 1988) indicated that performance goals elicited negative or maladaptive processes and outcomes. Another possible explanation is that the participants in this study were all high school students, whereas the previous grade-related studies (e.g., Xiang & Lee, 2002) focused on the comparison of students at different school levels (i.e., elementary school vs. middle school). The greatest shift in goal orientation might occur between elementary and middle school, but might be more stable by the time students enter high school. Again, additional study is recommended in order to explore and account for grade-related changes in achievement goals and social goals. 05Guan(58) 68 1/10/06, 8:31:47 AM

12 Achievement Goals and Social Goals 69 Implications for Future Research and Physical Educators The structure of achievement goals has been a subject of controversy among achievement goal researchers (Conroy, Elliot, & Hofer, 2003; Duda, 2001; Elliot & Church, 1997; Elliot & McGregor; 2001; Roberts, 2001; Smith, Duda, Allen, & Hall, 2002). This study provided evidence that mastery-approach, mastery-avoidance, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals are differential predictors of persistence and effort expenditure and demonstrates the importance of partitioning mastery and performance goals into approach and avoidance forms of regulation. Given that only one outcome variable (persistence/effort) was used for this study, future work should measure additional outcome variables (e.g., degree of improvement, physical activity levels, motivational climate, and intrinsic motivation) and examine how the four achievement goals yield differential results on outcome variables. Furthermore, persistence/effort in the present study is a self-report measure that might be different from observations of actual behavior. Therefore, future research should include data on the actual physical activity patterns of students in the examination of relationships among achievement goals, social goals, and achievement outcomes in physical education settings. A major goal of physical education is to motivate student participation in physical activity on a regular basis. As Xiang, Chen, and Bruene (2005) pointed out, The success or failure of curriculum reform might be dependent, in part, on the extent to which children are motivated to actively participate in learning tasks in physical education classes (p. 180). This study integrated both achievement goals and social goals into a single study and provided a more complete picture of how achievement goals and social goals affect studentsʼ reports of the persistence and effort they expended toward physical education in high school settings. The findings might help us better understand the factors that influence student participation in physical education and provide helpful information for teachers. Based on the results of this study, for example, physical educators might foster success by developing studentsʼ sense of responsibility (i.e., responsibility goals), emphasizing the importance of learning physical education knowledge (i.e., mastery-approach goals), and providing opportunities for success for all ability levels (e.g., when the focus of performance-approach goals can be congruent with individual motivational foundation). Moreover, given the simultaneous influence of multiple goals on student reports of persistence and effort expended toward physical education, taking a multiple goal approach to future research on student motivation and achievement is warranted. References Ames, C. (1984). Competitive, cooperative, and individualistic goal structures: A motivational analysis. In R. Ames & C. Ames (Eds.), Research on motivation in education (Vol. 1, pp ). San Diego, CA: Academic. Ames, C. (1992a). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, Ames, C. (1992b). Achievement goals and classroom motivational climate. In J. Meece & D. Schunk (Eds.), Studentsʼ perceptions in the classroom (pp ). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 05Guan(58) 69 1/10/06, 8:31:48 AM

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16 Achievement Goals and Social Goals 73 Appendix Achievement Goal Questionnaire Physical Education Performance-approach goals: It is important for me to do better than other students. It is important for me to do well compared with others. It is my goal to get a better grade than most of the other students. Mastery-approach goals I want to learn as much as possible. It is important for me to understand the content of this course as thoroughly as possible. I want to completely master the material presented to me. Performance-avoidance goals I just want to avoid doing poorly. My goal is to avoid performing poorly. My fear of performing poorly is often what motivates me. Mastery-avoidance goals Sometimes Iʼm afraid that I may not understand the content as thoroughly as Iʼd like. Iʼm often concerned that I may not learn all that there is to learn. I worry that I may not learn all that I possibly could. Social responsibility goals I try to do what the teacher asks me to do. Itʼs important to me that I follow class rules. Itʼs important to me to keep working even when other kids are goofing off. Iʼd like the teacher to think Iʼm a responsible student. I do not like to distract a classmate when he/she is performing an individual activity. Social relationship goals Iʼd like to get to know my school friends really well. Iʼd like to keep promises Iʼve made to other kids. I would like to have a friend I can confide in. Itʼs important to me to have one or two really close friends. Itʼs important to me that I am accepted by other students. Iʼd like to get along with most other students. 05Guan(58) 73 1/10/06, 8:31:56 AM

17 74 Guan et al. Persistence When I have trouble performing some skills, I go back and practice. Regardless of whether or not I like the activities, I work my hardest to do them. When something that I am practicing is difficult, I spend extra time and effort trying to do it right. I try to learn and do well even if an activity is boring. Effort I put a lot of effort into preparing for skills tests. I work very hard to prepare for our skills tests. I work hard to do well even if I donʼt like what we are doing. I always pay attention to my teacher. 05Guan(58) 74 1/10/06, 8:31:57 AM