Varieties of Religious Attachment 1. Varieties of Religious Attachment: Working Models in Semantic Space. Garth Neufeld

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1 Varieties of Religious Attachment 1 Running head: VARIETIES OF RELIGIOUS ATTACHMENT Varieties of Religious Attachment: Working Models in Semantic Space Kevin S. Reimer Azusa Pacific University Alvin C. Dueck Fuller Graduate School of Psychology Garth Neufeld Alliant International University Sherry Steenwyk Tracy Sidesinger Fuller Graduate School of Psychology Author Note Kevin S. Reimer, Department of Graduate Psychology, Azusa Pacific University, Azusa, California. Alvin C. Dueck, Fuller Graduate School of Psychology, Pasadena, California. Garth Neufeld, Alliant International University, Fresno, California. Sherry Steenwyk, Tracy Sidesinger, Fuller Graduate School of Psychology, Pasadena, California. This research was supported by a grant from Metanexus Institute/John Templeton Foundation to the first two authors. We thank M. Kyle Matsuba for suggestions to improve the manuscript. Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to Kevin S. Reimer, Department of Graduate Psychology, Azusa Pacific University, 901 East Alosta Avenue, P.O. Box 7000, Azusa, California Phone: (626) x5507. Fax: (626) Electronic mail: kreimer@apu.edu

2 Varieties of Religious Attachment 2 Abstract This study considered correspondence between working model representations of self and other in religious attachment. Given the importance of social context in the formation of working models, the project emphasized attachment language in a comparative religious design. In Study 1 (with 431 undergraduates), a global model of correspondence in religious attachment was used to test path relations between positive (e.g., secure) working models and perception of the divine. In Study 2 (with 20 nominated exemplars from Jewish, Muslim, and Christian traditions, respectively), socialization influences in correspondence were explored by unsupervised comparison of working model representations for each religious tradition in a computational semantic space. In general, correspondence proved a better predictor of religious attachment than compensation. When understood within a social intelligence framework, exemplar working models from all three religious traditions reflect socialization patterns integrating semantic and episodic knowledge of self with the divine and peers. [1,081 characters with spaces] Keywords: correspondence, internal working models, religious attachment, semantic space, social intelligence

3 Varieties of Religious Attachment 3 Varieties of Religious Attachment: Working Models in Semantic Space It was William James in The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902/2002) who famously identified the tendency of people to describe God using the language of interpersonal relationship. More recently, researchers have turned to attachment theory as a means to understanding religious perceptions in relational context (Birgegard & Granqvist, 2004; Granqvist, 1998; Granqvist & Hagekull, 2000; Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2004; Kirkpatrick, 1998, 1999; Kirkpatrick & Shaver, 1990, 1992; Rowatt & Kirkpatrick, 2002). Measures of attachment quality have been applied to perceptions of God with the general result that securely attached individuals experience the divine as more loving, less distant, and less controlling than insecurely attached people (Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2004; Kirkpatrick, 1998, 1999; Rowatt & Kirkpatrick, 2002). One explanation for this finding is that people perceive themselves in a relationship with God analogous to human attachment figures. However, the argument for correspondence between human and divine attachments is complicated by evidence of compensatory attachment behaviors for individuals with negative working models of self and other. Individuals with insecure attachment styles report more conversion experiences and increased attendance at religious services relative to securely attached people (Birgegard & Granqvist, 2004; Granqvist, 1998; Granqvist & Hagekull, 2000; Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2004; Kirkpatrick & Shaver, 1990). Efforts to clarify these findings include examination of socialization influences through parental attachment figures along with religious conversion experience (Birgegard & Granqvist, 2004; Granqvist, 1998; Granqvist & Hagekull, 2000; Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2004; Kirkpatrick, 1997, 1999). It is possible that underlying differences in working models of self and other are, at least in part, responsible for this complex picture of religious attachment. Working

4 Varieties of Religious Attachment 4 models mediate the adaptive potential of relationships within a goal framework (Bowlby, 1980; Bretherton, 2005; Collins & Allard, 2001; Collins & Feeney, 2000, 2004). Further work on religious attachment should explore how working models are implicated in perception of the divine, including socialization differences by religious tradition. The primary objective for the present research is to evaluate underlying differences in working models toward a fuller, more comprehensive account of personality in religious experience. The two studies reported here consider correspondence in religious attachment through secure working model representations of self and other (Study 1) with the intent of mapping working models to evaluate socialization influences (Study 2). Thus, we examine the nature of correspondence between human and divine attachments for individuals from three world religions (Judaism, Islam, and Christianity). Prior to describing the studies in greater detail, we review research on adult attachment, religion, and working models. Adult Attachment Theory and Religion Adult attachment theory is understood in terms of a behavioral system evolved to facilitate adaptive responses to environmental threats or stress (Bowlby, 1969, 1973, 1980). Individual differences in threat responses are predicated upon attachment styles that reflect behaviors and affect organized from experience with past attachment figures (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978; Collins & Feeney, 2004; Mikulincer, Dolev, & Shaver, 2004). Attachment styles are widely believed to reflect underlying differences in working models of self and other. Working models are representational schemas that integrate knowledge of self and other along with perceived expectations and goals associated with social networks (Bowlby, 1980; Bretherton, 2005; Collins & Feeney, 2004). Working model schemas tend to function beneath awareness, demonstrating a degree of automaticity in behavior (Collins & Read, 1994).

5 Varieties of Religious Attachment 5 Presumably, working models can be extended to include transcendence in the event that God functions as a kind of surrogate attachment figure (Ainsworth, 1985; Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2004; Kirkpatrick, 1998). In this view, the representational structure of the working model functions as a stable referent for interpersonal relationship that includes the divine. Working models are characterized by four attachment styles or prototypes based on two dimensions (Brennan, Clark, & Shaver, 1998; Collins & Feeney, 2004). Dimension 1 reflects a continuum of behaviors measured in terms of anxiety. Individuals with high anxiety reflect attachment histories where experiences of ambivalent or inconsistent care are incorporated into working models of self and other. Dimension 2 reflects the extent to which individuals demonstrate avoidance in relationships. People with high avoidance harbor distrust, anticipating rejection or retributive behavior from others. Accordingly, four attachment prototypes represent individual differences as measured along these two dimensions. Fearful-avoidant people are high on both anxiety and avoidance dimensions. They evidence negative perceptions of self and other. Dismissing-avoidant individuals score low on the anxiety dimension with high avoidance. Working models for these people reflect positive self representations with negative perceptions of others. Preoccupied persons have high anxiety with low avoidance. Working models for these individuals tend to be negatively oriented toward the self, but positive toward others. Secure or positively attached individuals score low on both anxiety and avoidance dimensions. Their working models reflect a generally positive view of self and other. Studies of religious attachment feature lively debates regarding the nature of transcendent motivation in the behavioral system. Are perceptions of the divine primarily characterized by compensation for attachment insecurity or correspondence between divine and human attachment figures? The compensation hypothesis for religious attachment emphasizes God as

6 Varieties of Religious Attachment 6 mediating distress for persons with insecure (e.g., fearful-avoidant, dismissing-avoidant, preoccupied) attachment styles, often through dramatic conversion experiences (Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2004; Kirkpatrick & Shaver, 1990). Evidence for compensation was found in heightened religiosity for single adults as compared with individuals in romantic partnerships (Granqvist & Hagekull, 2000). Compensation was also noted in a well-known longitudinal survey of religious change in college students (Kirkpatrick, 1997). The correspondence hypothesis suggests that individuals with secure attachment have working models that promote positive responses between human and divine attachment figures, and reflect religious socialization processes associated with the social network. Correspondence is noted in a variety of studies beginning with seminal work on religious belief by Kirkpatrick and Shaver (1992), and more recently in parental socialization and subliminal priming research (Birgegard & Granqvist, 2004; Granqvist & Hagekull, 1999). The evidence suggests that both insecurely and securely attached individuals demonstrate proximity seeking behaviors with the divine, but for different reasons. In an effort to streamline this expanded account of religious attachment, the two hypotheses were aligned in a complementary fashion where compensation accounts for longitudinal attachment history and correspondence reflects contemporary adult social networks (Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2004). In step with this proposal, allied research shifted to focus on conversion experiences indicative of compensation for those with insecure styles and socialization patterns anticipating contemporary correspondence in religious attachment (Birgegard & Granqvist, 2004; Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2004). A conclusion from this work is that, with the exception of conversion experiences and parental religious socialization, the main effects of attachment are too inconsistent to facilitate a comprehensive account of personality in religious context (Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2004).

7 Varieties of Religious Attachment 7 This conclusion may be premature given that religious attachment studies have tended to interpret working model differences based on self-report assessments from convenience (e.g., Christian or secular) samples (Birgegard & Granqvist, 2004; Granqvist, 1998, 2002; Granqvist & Hagekull, 1999, 2001, 2003; Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2004; Kirkpatrick 1998). Given Bowlby s (1969; 1980) contention that working models are intrinsic to corresponding attachment behaviors in the social network, language used to describe representations of divine other should be considered closely. Attempts have been made to apply attachment language to trait adjective God-image scales or assessment paragraphs (Kirkpatrick & Shaver, 1992; Kirkpatrick, 1998; Rowatt & Kirkpatrick, 2002), but it is unclear how fully these scales capture relational dimensions of corresponding attachments, particularly across different religious traditions. Hutsebaut and Verhoeven (1995) found that open-ended interview questions evoked richly interpersonal perceptions of the divine in participants. Response language did not closely resemble trait adjective self-report measures for God-image. Correspondence might be robustly considered through assessments employing attachment language to detail (a) experience of God s actions as secure base, and (b) positive or negative feelings about God as secure base (Schaap-Jonker, Eurelings-Bontekoe, Verhagen, & Zock, 2002). The prevalence of convenience samples in the religious attachment literature is problematic. Bowlby s (1969, 1980) theory of working models is premised upon reciprocity with the environment. By extension, working models are crucially related to the cultural and interpersonal priorities of particular religious contexts. Semantic associations with human and divine attachment representations are likely forged in these contexts. The nature of correspondence between human and divine attachments may vary depending on socialization structures endemic to particular religions (Shweder, Much, Mahapatra, & Park, 1997). In the

8 Varieties of Religious Attachment 8 event that correspondence is the best predictor of religious attachment, socialization assessment necessitates comparative religious study of individuals with consistent, demonstrable commitments to their respective traditions. Working models emphasizing a positive view of self and other (e.g., secure attachment) offer the most straightforward means to exploring the predictive strength of correspondence understood through attachment language, and are expected to coincide with consistent religious commitment (Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2004). Working Models in Semantic Space How are underlying differences between working models explored in a manner sensitive to language and religious tradition? The social intelligence view of personality understands the self as mental representations reflecting semantic and episodic knowledge (Kihlstrom, Beer, & Klein, 2003; Kihlstrom & Cantor, 2000; Kihlstrom, Cantor, Albright, Chew, Klein, & Niedenthal, 1988; Kihlstrom, Marchese-Foster, & Klein, 1997). Semantic knowledge comprises abstract concepts regarding the self including values, attitudes, traits, and motives (Kihlstrom et al., 1997). Episodic knowledge includes concrete information regarding the self such as events that are situated in autobiographical narrative. In the purview of social intelligence, both elements of self-understanding are related to aspects of memory (e.g., semantic and episodic) associated with cognitive representations (Kihlstrom et al., 1997; Northoff & Bermpohl, 2004; Squire, 1992; Squire & Zola, 1998; Tulving, 1983; Vargha-Khadem, Gadian, Watkins, Connelly, Van Paesschen, & Mishkin, 1997). Following Bowlby s (1980) ethological claim that working model representations are aligned with memory, working models might be considered as a hierarchy of representational concepts that reflect intrapsychic and interpersonal concerns (Kihlstrom & Cantor, 2000; Kihlstrom et al., 1997). If representations of self and other could be

9 Varieties of Religious Attachment 9 studied on the basis of their semantic and episodic knowledge bases, it would be possible to outline working models in a manner specific to differences such as religious tradition. A recent study successfully managed these issues by employing a quantitative method to map cognitive representations of self and other related to identity in moral functioning (Reimer & Wade-Stein, 2004). To account for semantic and episodic dimensions of self-understanding, representations were cued through questions in a semi-structured interview. Narrative responses for various self-representations (e.g., actual self, ideal self, despised self, temporal self) along with others (e.g., caregivers, romantic attachment figures) were compared to one another with the use of Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA; lsa.colorado.edu; Laham, 1997; Landauer, Foltz, & Laham, 1998; Steyvers & Tenenbaum, 2005). LSA is a knowledge representation model that provides unsupervised (e.g., empirically derived) meaning comparisons between words, sentences, or paragraphs in a high-dimensional semantic space (Landauer et al., 1998). The model is premised upon a matrix decomposition technique similar to factor analysis known as singular-value decomposition (SVD). In LSA words, sentences, and paragraphs are assigned a vector as an estimate of meaning in the semantic space. To specify vector trajectories, LSA references an 11 million word corpus of first-year collegiate readers that serves as the model s global knowledge of the world. Cosine angles between vectors quantify similarity or dissimilarity between texts, resulting in a standard covariance matrix. In the identity study, similarity of self and other representations was calculated and subjected to inferential multivariate techniques to facilitate interpretation (Reimer & Wade-Stein, 2004). Results from this study demonstrated that it is possible to construct perceptual maps of self and other representations in a social intelligence framework using narrative data. The approach might be extended to analyze similarity or dissimilarity between self and other

10 Varieties of Religious Attachment 10 representations in working models. Proximities between representations reflect interpersonal histories culminating in the current organization of the attachment behavioral system. Patterns reflecting socialization processes are evident in the degree to which semantic and episodic knowledge is shared between representations in narrative. In general, we expect that greater distances between self and other representations reflect insecure attachment history (e.g., anxiety and/or avoidance) or less prominent socialization influence in the contemporary social network. Shorter distances between self and other representations are typical of secure attachment or more prominent socialization influences in the contemporary social network. The method allows cognitive representations of multiple attachment figures to be considered simultaneously. Working models are empirically derived in terms of cognitive representations ensconced within participant narrative. One advantage of this method is that it preserves semantic and episodic knowledge aspects of attachment experience in the participant s working model. Because the LSA technique resources semi-structured response narratives, language used to describe self along with various others (e.g., human and divine attachments) can be considered within the cultural and interpersonal context of particular religions. Variations in participant conceptualization of God as a secure base are mapped in relation to social networks using multidimensional scaling (MDS; Cox & Cox, 2000). Set relations between representations imply attachments reflecting corresponding influences in the social network, identified with the use of hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA; Everitt, Landau, & Leese, 2001). If correspondence is globally supported where perceptions of the divine are construed in attachment language, differing socialization patterns in working models for participants from various religions can be quantified in a context-specific manner.

11 Varieties of Religious Attachment 11 The ability to specify working models through the language of particular socialization contexts raises a potentially thorny problem. A comparative religious design favors participants that evince religious maturity and prosocial commitment as viable representatives of their respective tradition. However, different religious traditions will likely have disparate ideas of what is meant by maturity or what constitutes demonstrable commitment. Although prior work on religious attachment anticipates that positive (secure) working models are associated with correspondence, we cannot assume that religious maturity and prosocial commitment will always coincide with secure working models. Walker and Hennig (2004) offer a solution, indicating that individual differences in personality can be subjected to naturalistic perspectives when study variables are abstract and values-laden. In other words, people s ordinary conceptions of an abstract construct such as morality or religiousness can be used to establish benchmarks for psychological functioning. In order to create a level playing field for the comparative study of working models between religions, naturalistic perspectives of religious maturity and prosocial commitment might be used to identify exemplar participants for study. Consideration of underlying differences for working models in semantic space is therefore deliberately descriptive and tentative, premised upon criteria of maturity and prosocial commitment defined through consensus of the particular religious traditions under study. Overview of Studies In summary, the main goal for the present research is to consider underlying differences in working models through correspondence in religious attachment. The two studies reported here are exploratory and descriptive given their focus on working models in religious attachment, evaluating how positive (e.g., secure) perceptions of self and other correspond with perceptions of the divine where the latter is understood through attachment language (Study 1). This

12 Varieties of Religious Attachment 12 anticipates differences in attachment histories and socialization patterns as represented in working models for exemplars from several world religions nominated for maturity and prosocial commitment (Study 2). Socialization patterns inherent to religious attachments are likely to vary by religious tradition where multiple attachment figures are understood in context and mapped in a social intelligence view of working models. Study 1 models correspondence in religious attachment through positive (secure) working models, using attachment language to describe the divine. The argument for correspondence in working models anticipates continuity in the attachment behavioral system between human and divine figures. Correspondence is observed in the manner by which securely attached individuals have a representational framework amenable to a positive perception of God, and people successfully internalize religious beliefs from attachment figures (Granqvist, 2002; Granqvist & Hagekull, 1999; Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2004; Kirkpatrick, 1992). We hypothesize that individuals with positive (secure) representations of self and other in their working models will demonstrate this kind of continuity through positive perceptions of a God understood through human attachment language. Secondarily, we hypothesize that mediating insecure attachment styles will provide positive perception of God as an attachment figure, but with considerably weaker associations. The model proposes that, when controlling for religious tradition, correspondence is a better predictor of religious attachment than compensation where attachment language is used to describe God. The efficacy of the correspondence model tested in Study 1 is extended by examination of underlying differences in working models for nominated exemplars from Jewish, Muslim, and Christian religious backgrounds. Study 2 considers correspondence between human and religious attachment figures from a social intelligence perspective, mapping working model

13 Varieties of Religious Attachment 13 representations of self and other by comparing similarity and dissimilarity of narrative responses using LSA. Participants are nominated for religious maturity and prosocial commitment on the basis of consensus criteria outlined by leaders from each religious tradition. Overall, we hypothesize that exemplars will have generally positive (secure) working models of self and other. Based on evidence affirming parental socialization influence in a correspondence view of religious attachment, we hypothesize that the parent representation will be close to self representation in working models for all three religious groups. We additionally hypothesize that the God representation will be close to self and parent representations in all three groups. In general, we expect that exemplar working models will reveal close proximities between self and other that reflect correspondence as modeled in Study 1. Study 1: Correspondence Model Study 1 tested a global correspondence model proposing that individuals with working models reflecting positive perceptions of self and other (e.g., secure attachment) will demonstrate positive perception of God when attachment language is used to describe the divine. The structural equation model was organized in a manner that emphasized perceptions of God for persons with positive working models, mediated through insecure attachment styles. We conceptualized the model on the basis of individuals with low anxiety and low avoidance that suggested positive perceptions of self and other (e.g., secure attachment style), with mediating factors of heightened anxiety and/or avoidance representing some combination of the self and other negatively (e.g., fearful-avoidant, dismissing-avoidant, preoccupied attachment styles). The model tested two hypotheses while controlling for participant religious tradition. Method Participants

14 Varieties of Religious Attachment 14 The sample consisted of 431 undergraduates (301 women and 130 men) enrolled in two general education course sections at a large public university in California. Undergraduates participated in the study in exchange for partial course credit. Participant ages ranged from 17 years to 57 years (M = 21.6 years, SD = 6.15). Ethnicity was 3.0% African American, 1.2% American Indian, 4.2% Asian, 64.7% Caucasian, 18.1% Latino/a, 6.7% Multi-Racial, and 2.1% other ethnic background. Religious tradition included.9% Buddhist,.2% Hindu,.2% Muslim, 75.6% Protestant, 14.8% Roman Catholic, and 4.9% no religion. Measures, Variables, & Proposed Model Selection of measures appropriate to study objectives required compromises reflecting the growing measurement literature on adult attachment (Bartholomew & Shaver, 1998; Fraley & Waller, 1998; Fraley, Waller, & Brennan, 2000; Shaver & Mikulincer, 2004). For Study 1 we needed a general, working model representation of secure attachment amenable to a large sample of university undergraduates. This requirement suggested self-report (as opposed to interview) format, oriented toward generalized attachment experiences that avoided conceptual priming for religious language. We felt that peer-oriented attachment language was more neutral than romantic attachment language and therefore less likely to introduce a priming confound in the means by which participants interpreted items dealing with perception of the divine (Bartholomew & Shaver, 1998; Fraley, Waller, & Brennan, 2000). With its twin emphases on peer attachments and working models of self and other, we used the Relationship Scales Questionnaire (RSQ; Griffin & Bartholomew, 1994a). This instrument measures four attachment prototypes (e.g., secure, fearful-avoidant, dismissing-avoidant, and preoccupied) along with models of self and other. For the present study, RSQ self and other indicators were combined

15 Varieties of Religious Attachment 15 with the secure attachment prototype indicator to comprise a general, latent working model variable (Bartholomew & Shaver, 1998). In addition to the RSQ, participants completed the God Image Scales, a measure for perception of the divine using language of human attachments (GIS; Lawrence, 1997). The GIS considers issues of belonging and goodness through acceptance. Prior work on religious attachment emphasized adaptation of existing trait-adjective measures of God-image or attachment paragraphs designed to correspond with single prototypes (Kirkpatrick & Shaver, 1992; Granqvist & Kirkpatrick, 2004). By contrast, the GIS was designed on the primary assumption that God functions as a secure base much like a human caregiver. Following Rizzuto (1979), the GIS differentiates between God concept and God image, using attachment language to provide a composite perception of the divine in an attachment role. The instrument demonstrates adequate construct validity (Lawrence, 1997). Thus, our analysis was premised upon the proposed structural equation model found in Figure 1. The independent (exogenous) variable for the structural model was the latent positive working model. The latent independent variable was comprised of three indicators. Mediating observed variables included fearfulavoidant, dismissing-avoidant, and preoccupied insecure attachment styles. The latent dependent (endogenous) variable for the structural model was perception of divine. As with the independent variable, perception of divine was composed of three indicators and controlled for participant religious tradition. --INSERT FIGURE 1 ABOUT HERE-- Attachment. Attachment was measured with the RSQ (Griffin & Bartholomew, 1994a). The RSQ is a 30 item self-report measuring four attachment prototypes (e.g., secure, fearfulavoidant, dismissing-avoidant, preoccupied) and two attachment dimensions (e.g., model of self,

16 Varieties of Religious Attachment 16 model of other). Each item is scored on a 5-point Likert scale from not at all like me to very much like me. To test the hypothesized model in Figure 1, insecure attachment prototypes were assessed using the RSQ. These prototypes comprised mediating observed variables. The fearfulavoidant scale is made up of 4 items (e.g., I am uncomfortable being close to others ; α =.72). Additionally, the dismissing-avoidant scale is made up of 4 items (e.g., I prefer not to depend on others ; α =.60). Finally, the preoccupied scale is made up of 4 items (e.g., I worry that others don t value me as much as I value them ; α =.51). In order to outline positive working model as a latent independent (exogenous) variable, we followed guidelines from Griffin and Bartholomew (1994b) on scoring the RSQ for self and other items. Model of self [(preoccupied + fearful) - (secure + dismissive)] was computed where high scores reflect positive view of the self. Model of other [(dismissive + fearful) (secure + preoccupied)] was computed where high scores suggest openness to intimacy in relationships. These indicators were combined with the 5 item (e.g., I find it easy to get emotionally close to others ; α =.67) secure prototype scale. Thus, the positive working model variable was comprised of three indicators including model of self, model of other, and secure attachment style. A mean scale was created from the three indicators with an internal consistency (alpha) of.62. Perception of divine. Perception of the divine was measured with the GIS (Lawrence, 1997). The GIS is a 36 item self-report that includes three scales applying attachment language to the divine. The GIS is based on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Three scales within the GIS were used as indicators in this latent dependent (endogenous) variable. The first scale, acceptance, deals with the extent to which participants feel worthy of divine attention and love. The acceptance scale was comprised of 6 items (e.g., I am sometimes anxious about whether God still loves me ; α =.67). The second scale, entitled

17 Varieties of Religious Attachment 17 presence, relates to the participant s sense of whether God is available as a caregiver providing a secure base. The presence scale was also constructed from 6 items (e.g., I get no feeling of closeness to God, even in prayer ; α =.83). The third scale, challenge, is conceptualized in terms of whether God s presence supports or demands that the participant move away from the secure base to interact with the world. The challenge scale was derived from 6 items (e.g., God asks me to keep growing as a person ; α =.76). Thus, perception of the divine was measured as a three indicator latent dependent variable premised upon language reflecting attachments. Again, a mean scale was created from the three indicators, demonstrating internal consistency (alpha) of.78. Preliminary Analyses Means, standard deviations, and bivariate correlations for manifest indicators and variables are given in Tables 1 and 2. The Pearson correlations in these tables are indicative of relations between manifest indicators and variables rather than underlying latent constructs tested in the structural model. The secure attachment manifest indicator was positively correlated (p <.01) with all three dimensions of the GIS (r =.13 to.28). Conversely, the fearful-avoidant (high anxiety, high avoidance) manifest variable was negatively correlated (p <.01) with two of the three GIS dimensions (r = -.23 to -.25). Lowest correlations were observed for the preoccupied manifest variable from the RSQ and the challenge manifest indicator from the GIS. --INSERT TABLES 1 AND 2 ABOUT HERE-- SEM We used version 5.0 of the Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS; Arbuckle & Wothke, 1999) program to test a model for religious attachment that included one latent independent variable, three mediating observed variables, and one latent dependent variable. Direct maximum

18 Varieties of Religious Attachment 18 likelihood estimation of missing data facilitated inclusion of the entire sample. Positive working model served as a latent independent variable including model of self, model of other, and secure attachment indicators. Fearful-avoidant, dismissing-avoidant, and preoccupied insecure attachment styles comprised the three mediating observed variables. Perception of the divine was the latent dependent variable identified by acceptance, presence, and challenge indicators of religious attachment. The model was examined for goodness of fit with the use of several indices tempered by recommendations from Hu and Bentler (1999). These included the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), an index of discrepancy per degrees of freedom. Acceptable fit for this index should be near or above.06. The goodness of fit index (GFI), adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) and comparative fit index (CFI) were also used to assess the overall robustness of the model. With these recommendations, GFI and CFI should be.95 or better, with AGFI at or above.90. We conducted the test of the structural model in two steps. Anderson and Gerbing (1988) recommend a split-half procedure for model fitting. This approach necessitates dividing the data into two randomly selected subsamples. The first subsample is used for an initial test of the model and for the purpose of specifying model modifications as needed. The second subsample serves a confirmatory function for analysis of the final model. Following this procedure, the first randomly selected subsample had 215 participants, with 216 participants in the second subsample (overall N = 431). The strategy was employed to test the primary study hypothesis that individuals with positive (secure) representations of self and other will demonstrate correspondence through positive perceptions of a God understood through human attachment language. Results and Discussion

19 Varieties of Religious Attachment 19 Initial analysis of the proposed structural model with the first subsample found poor (not admissible) fit of the data to the model. Modeled variables were examined in order to deduce whether the lack of fit was related to the measurement or structural models. It was determined that the mediating observed variables dismissing-avoidant and preoccupied were poorly fitted. However, the latent independent variable positive working model and mediating observed variable fearful-avoidant demonstrated moderate fit X 2 (67, N = 216) = , p <.01. Consequently, we eliminated the mediating observed variables dismissing-avoidant and preoccupied from the model. We then freed the correlations among the three error terms for the latent independent variable positive working model and for the three error terms for the latent dependent variable perception of the divine. This change caused a significant improvement in overall model fit, X 2 (28, N = 215) = 57.0, p <.01; GFI =.94, AGFI =.88, CFI =.96, RMSEA =.10. Confirmatory analysis was conducted on the second subsample and indicated good model fit, X 2 (18, N = 216) = 49.26, p <.01; GFI =.95, AGFI =.90, CFI =.97, RMSEA =.09. The modified structural equation model reflecting confirmatory analysis in the second subsample is given in Figure 2. --INSERT FIGURE 2 ABOUT HERE-- The purpose of Study 1 was to globally consider correspondence between positive working models and the divine where the latter is described using the language of attachment. Results supported the main hypothesis in that relational continuity implied through Bowlby s theory of working models is sustained where positive or secure representations of self and other are considered in perception of the divine. The standardized path coefficient between the independent (exogenous) variable and the dependent (endogenous) variable was robust. We additionally hypothesized that mediating variables of insecure attachment styles will reflect a

20 Varieties of Religious Attachment 20 diminished (albeit positive) perception of God as an attachment figure. This hypothesis was also supported, although in conjunction with the unexpected elimination of two mediating observed variables. The standardized path coefficient between the mediating observed variable fearfulavoidant and the dependent (endogenous) variable perception of the divine was significant, but considerably lower than the coefficient indicated for the main hypothesis. In a general sense, correspondence in the model does appear to better predict positive perception of the divine than compensation. Our discussion recalls Granqvist and Kirkpatrick s (2004) proposal for correspondence and compensation hypotheses. Study emphasis on positive working models in religious attachment validates the contention that correspondence reflects the contemporary adult social network. Beyond immediate issues related to worthiness and divine availability (e.g., acceptance, presence), attachment language in the GIS emphasizes the extent to which participants feel empowered to move away from the divine as a secure base (e.g., challenge). The structural model tested in Study 1 did not account for specific attachment relationships in the social network of participants. However, the use of human relationship categories in divine perception suggests that the attachment behavioral system in working models is extended into the religious domain on the basis of parallel or analogous experiences. The strong predictive utility of correspondence in religious attachment justifies further efforts to specify the nature of contemporary socialization influences in the social network. Study findings regarding compensation were more difficult to interpret. We address two issues salient to the compensation findings, including (a) elimination of dismissing-avoidant and preoccupied mediating observed variables, and (b) the strength of path coefficient between the fearful-avoidant mediating observed variable and the latent dependent variable. One response to

21 Varieties of Religious Attachment 21 issue (a) relates to attachment measurement. A potential drawback to the RSQ is its heavy investment in the measurement of attachment prototypes (Fraley & Waller, 1998; Fraley et al., 2000). Psychometric analysis of the RSQ reinforces the ethological underpinnings of Bowlby s theory, suggesting that attachment measurement can be understood in a manner that does not necessitate typological (e.g., prototype) schemes (Fraley & Waller, 1998). On the basis of their construct validation work, Fraley and Waller (1998) argue that the four prototype categories in the RSQ should be collapsed into two continuous dimensions of anxiety and avoidance. For the present study, secure attachment indicated by the latent independent variable positive working model represents diminished anxiety and avoidance. The remaining observed variable fearfulavoidant represents high anxiety and avoidance. The structural model retains those prototypes that, on the basis of Fraley and Waller s (1998) psychometric revisions, are anticipated to provide opposites or variability that generally distinguishes individuals with low anxiety (or avoidance) from those with high anxiety (or avoidance). With regard to issue (b), we observe that the path for the fearful-avoidant mediating observed variable and the latent dependent variable (perception of the divine) was significantly positive. Fraley and Waller (1998) hypothesize that anxiety and avoidance dimensions may work at different (albeit complementary) levels of social cognition. Anxiety is implicated by limbic activity, reflecting affective thresholds. Avoidance appeals to the organization of knowledge representations. Along these lines, Rowatt and Kirkpatrick (2002) found that heightened anxiety predicted neuroticism and negative affect in religious attachment. High avoidance inversely predicted agreeableness and religious symbolic immortality. Given high anxiety and avoidance intrinsic to the fearful-avoidant observed variable, we can surmise that the positive path coefficient reflects a compensation pattern at least partly interpretable on the basis of the five-

22 Varieties of Religious Attachment 22 factor model (McRae & Costa, 1990). Heightened neuroticism in this instance suggests guiltprone compensation for self-perceived inadequacies (McRae, Costa, & Busch, 1986). Diminished agreeableness implies a considerable degree of internal ambivalence in perception of the divine, where guilt coincides with skeptical expectations of transcendent reciprocity. A second interpretation for issue (b) recalls Granqvist and Kirkpatrick s (2004) notion that compensation is an artifact of developmentally cumulative attachment experiences. Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson and Collins (2005) characterize their decades-long work on attachment in terms of developmental capacity for the individual to relate to peers. These authors offer five bases for effective peer attachments including (a) motivational base or belief that relationships will be rewarding, (b) attitudinal base or belief that one may elicit responses from others, (c) instrumental base or mastery through support for exploration, (d) emotional base or selfregulation of emotion, and (e) relational base or expectations concerning empathic exchange (Sroufe et al., 2005). The present study framed religious attachment in terms of peer relations, making this developmental interpretation potentially relevant to compensation. In addition to measurement issues, it is possible that the elimination of dismissing-avoidant and preoccupied mediating observed variables relates to developmental deficits intrinsic to the five bases. The prominence of high anxiety and high avoidance (fearful-avoidant mediating observed variable) in the structural equation model suggests that compensation is related to attachment deficits that are fairly equitably spread across all five developmental bases. In a longitudinal sense, compensation implied by the model can be characterized in terms of efforts to resource divine transcendence to make up for diminished capacities to facilitate engagement with peers, stay engaged with peer groups, or construct a basic understanding of what positive relationships

23 Varieties of Religious Attachment 23 require (Sroufe et al., 2005). The present study did not handle compensation in a longitudinal manner, nor did it account for conversion experiences. These conclusions indicate further study. Study 2: Correspondence & Socialization in Working Models The efficacy of generalized correspondence was further specified by exploratory comparison of underlying differences in working models for nominated exemplars from Jewish, Muslim, and Christian religious backgrounds. The purpose of Study 2 was to employ a comparative religious design to consider working model correspondence between human and religious attachment figures from a social intelligence perspective. This included evaluation of attachment security in nominated exemplars from three religious traditions. The study created maps of working models to facilitate comparison of set relations reflecting socialization. This was accomplished by using latent semantic analysis (LSA) to evaluate semantic and episodic content in participant narratives that correspond with representations of self and various others. Two complementary multivariate techniques were used to further specify representations in the high-dimensional semantic space. Multidimensional scaling (MDS) was used to construct perceptual maps outlining dimensions for representations reflecting correspondence in religious attachment and socialization. Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) identified set relations between representations regarded as similar or sharing significant semantic and episodic content. Given the main objective to study correspondence and socialization influences, monotheistic world religions that reference the divine as a singular other (e.g., Jewish, Muslim, and Christian) were targeted. Thus, the present study tested three hypotheses reflecting correspondence and socialization in working models. Method Nominated Exemplar Participants

24 Varieties of Religious Attachment 24 Sampling for the second study followed guidelines in a recent project emphasizing naturalistic conceptions of exemplary psychological functioning applicable to participant nomination (Matsuba & Walker, 2004). Three separate focus groups were convened from Jewish, Muslim, and Christian religions, respectively. Focus groups were comprised of 6-12 leaders and clergy from each religion in a diverse California metropolitan region. Leaders were invited from religion subgroups that were numerically well represented in the metropolitan area, including Reform Jewish, Sunni Muslim, and Presbyterian Christian traditions. Focus groups were conducted in English, asking individuals to identify exemplar nomination criteria that reflected religious maturity and prosocial commitment. Focus group process included prioritization of criteria, with similar descriptors typically collapsed into general statements. Groups were asked to ratify final criteria as being representative of their process and religious perspective. The resulting list of nomination criteria included (a) learning and being in continual process, (b) sense of (and acting on) responsibility for one s religious fellows, (c) sense of one s own faith that informs daily life, (d) God-consciousness, (e) believes in Torah/Qu ran/bible as word of God and follows it in daily life, (f) lives life intentionally, (g) practices faith (e.g., prayer, fasting, observances, charity, declaration of faith, pilgrimage), (h) promotes peace among all peoples, (i) is actively engaged with God and others, (j) lives a joyful, balanced, and humble life, and (k) is interested in helping others grow spiritually in a quietly contagious manner. Consensus nomination criteria were provided to leaders and clergy that participated in the focus groups. Leaders and clergy were asked to nominate individuals from within their respective religious tradition that evinced strong evidence of nomination criteria. Nominated exemplars comprised several official religious leaders, but mainly consisted of everyday individuals from area synagogues, mosques, and church congregations. Nominated exemplars

25 Varieties of Religious Attachment 25 were contacted and invited to participate in the study. Interested exemplars were mailed consent forms, a self-report survey, and scheduled for a face-to-face interview. Participants were provided with a $50 honorarium. Of 36 exemplars nominated from Reform Jewish leaders and clergy, 20 participated. This sample group averaged 45.0 years of age (SD = 11.2, range = 25-66). The sample self-identified as ethnically Jewish (82.4%), European (11.8%), or Latino/a (5.9%). Level of education included high school completion (5.0%), bachelor s degree (30.0%), master s degree (55.0%) and doctoral degree (10.0%). Out of 27 nominations from Sunni Muslim leaders and clergy, 20 participated. The Muslim sample averaged 34.5 years of age (SD = 11.4, range = 23-79). This sample selfidentified as ethnically European (70.6%) or Turkish (29.4%). Level of education included high school completion (5.0%), bachelor s degree (35.0%), master s degree (35.0%) and doctoral degree (25.0%). Of 32 nominations from Presbyterian Christian leaders and clergy, 20 participated. The Christian sample averaged 56.9 years of age (SD = 11.3, range = 33-72). This sample self-identified as ethnically European (80.0%), Latino/a (15.0%), or American Indian (5.0%). Level of education included high school completion (15.0%), trade school or associate s degree (5.0%), bachelor s degree (10.0%), master s degree (50.0%) and doctoral degree (20.0%). The lower mean age for Muslim exemplars reflects the recently emigrated, highly educated profile of Turkish citizens in several local mosques. Overall, nominated exemplars were welleducated individuals working in professional vocations including engineers, nurses, teachers, and doctors. All exemplars were fluent in the English language. Procedure The general correspondence model outlined in Study 1 focused on positive (e.g., secure) internal working models. For Study 2, the first hypothesis was that nominated exemplars would

26 Varieties of Religious Attachment 26 demonstrate positive (secure) internal working models. Accordingly, Study 2 participants completed the Relationship Scales Questionnaire (RSQ; Griffin & Bartholomew, 1994a). To address the second and third hypotheses, participants responded to semi-structured interview questions. Questions included references to global self (What kind of person are you?), along with others implicated in working models that reflect the social network past and present. These others included romantic partner (What kind of person are you with your romantic partner?), parents (What kind of person are you with your parents?), best friend (What kind of person are you with your best friend?), and God (What kind of person are you with God?). Interview responses were recorded and transcribed. All identifying content was removed from transcripts. Interview recordings were erased and a numerical code assigned to transcripts to ensure confidentiality. Transcribed responses were collated by interview question for each of the three religious traditions. In this manner, aggregate responses to the interview were constructed for Jewish, Muslim, and Christian sample groups. Each aggregate response served as one of five cognitive representation variables in a social intelligence view of working models (e.g., self, romantic partner, parents, best friend, God). The second and third hypotheses in Study 2 called for analysis of similarity and dissimilarity between cognitive representation variables for each religious sample group as an approximation of socialization in working models of attachment. The basis for LSA analysis of similarity and dissimilarity is any text selected by the researcher on the basis of its appropriateness for evaluating shared semantic and episodic knowledge. Given the current study interest of correspondence in religious attachment, the 30 item stems of the RSQ were used as texts for comparison to the five cognitive representation variables from each religious tradition. The RSQ afforded a continuous measure of attachment between Study 1 and Study 2.