Chapter 7: Cognitive Aspects of Personality. Copyright Allyn & Bacon (2009)

Transcription

1 Chapter 7: Cognitive Aspects of Personality

2 Roots in Gestalt Psychology Human beings seek meaning in their environments We organize the sensations we receive into meaningful perceptions Complex stimuli are not reducible to the sum of their parts

3 Gestalt Psychology Gestalt-"essence or shape of an entity's complete form". Focused on perceptions and problem solving.

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5 Gestalt Psychology A Gestalt perceptual figure Is the triangle shown in the image or constructed in the mind of the viewer?

6 Kurt Lewin s Field Theory Life space All internal and external forces, and their relationships to one another e.g., family, religion, work, etc. Personality define Contemporaneous causation Behavior is caused at the moment of its occurrence by all the forces acting at that moment

7 Cognitive style variables An individual distinctive, enduring way of dealing with everyday tasks of perception and problem solving

8 Field Dependence Rod-and-Frame Test Field dependent Field independent

9 Field Dependence Children s play preference Field independent children favor solitary play Socialization patterns Field independent people emphasize autonomy over conformity Career choice Field independent people prefer technological occupations

10 Field Dependence Interpersonal distance Field independent people tend to sit farther away from a conversational partner Eye contact Field independent people make less frequent and less prolonged eye contact with a conversational partner

11 Cognitive and perceptual mechanism

12 Jean Piaget : Schema Theory Schema A cognitive structure that organizes knowledge and expectations about one s environment Determines how we think and act Script Schemas for familiar events e.g., eating at a restaurant

13 Categorization We tend to organize events, objects, and people into categories Positive effects of categorization Quickly understand complex information Make likely inferences about new things Negative effects of categorization Stereotypes (A schema or belief about the personality traits that tend to be characteristic of members of some group) Overlook individuating characteristics

14 Control of Attention We notice salientenvironmental features and combine these with our current goals to decide where to direct our attention Individual differences in attention e.g., attention-deficit disorder

15 Human as scientist George Kelly

16 George Kelly Personal Construct Theory People actively endeavor to understand the world and construct their own theories about human behavior Every man is, in his own particular way, a scientist Kelly

17 Kelly: The Role Construct Repertory Test (p.234) Assesses personal construct systems Think of: A teacher you liked Your boss A successful person you know Which two are similar? How? Who is different? How? Over many triads, the test-taker s constructs emerge

18 Social Intelligence Knowledge and skills relevant to interpersonal situations Including: empathy, compassion, humor, etc. Emotional intelligence ( the set of emotional abilities specific to dealing with other people) Emotion knowledge (the ability to recognize and interpret emotions in the self and others) Similar to Howard Gardner s multiple intelligences theory (human have at least 7 different ways of knowing about the world) Interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence

19 Explanatory Style A characteristic way of interpreting life events Optimism and Pessimism Optimistic style is generally associated with better outcomes Implications for achievement Learned Helplessness (Seligman) Repeated exposure to unavoidablepunishment leads to the acceptance of avoidable punishment Cognitive intervention can reduce the depressive effect of pessimism

20 Julian Rotter s Locus of control

21 Julian Rotter Behavior depends upon outcome expectancy and reinforcement value Outcome expectancy Person s expectation that his or her behavior will be reinforced Reinforcement value Value of the expected reinforcer to the individual

22 Julian Rotter Behavior potential Likelihood that a behavior will be performed in a particular situation Generalized vs. specific expectancies Generalized expectancies apply to categories of behaviors and situations Specific expectancies apply to particular instances of behaviors and situations

23 Julian Rotter Six psychological needs Recognition-status Dominance Independence Protection-dependency Love and affection Physical comfort Secondary reinforcers Associated with satisfaction of these needs

24 Julian Rotter Locus of control Beliefs about one s ability to affect outcomes Stable individual difference Internal locus of control Outcomes are the result of one s own actions More achievement-oriented External locus of control Believe events are beyond their personal control Includes components of chance and powerful others More likely to suffer stress and depression

25 Albert Bandura : Social Cognitive Learning Theory

26 Albert Bandura Self-system The set of cognitive processes by which a person perceives, evaluates, and regulates his or her own behavior so it s functionally efficient and appropriate

27 Albert Bandura How can new behaviors be acquired in the absence of reinforcement? Observational Learning Vicarious learning and modeling Learning Aggressive Behavior Bobo doll experiments

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29 Albert Bandura Factors that influence modeling: Outcome expectancy People are more likely to imitate behaviors that they believe lead to positive outcomes Characteristics of the model Age, gender, status, competence, etc. Characteristics of the behavior Simple and salient behaviors Attributes of the observer Self-esteem, dependence, cognitive development

30 Albert Bandura Processes underlying observational learning Attention Retention Motor reproduction Motivation

31 Albert Bandura Self-efficacy A belief abut how competently one will be able to enact a behavior in a particular situation Self-efficacy determines: If we even try to act How long we persist in our behavior How success or failure affects future behavior

32 Albert Bandura Self-efficacy is based on: Past success and failures at similar tasks Vicarious experiences (seeing others) Verbal persuasion (by others) Emotional reactions (how we feel about the behavior) Self-efficacy is specific to the situation/behavior Unlike self-esteem, which is global

33 Albert Bandura Self-regulation People s control over their own achievements Setting goals for themselves Evaluating their success Rewarding themselves Includes self-efficacy and schemas Focuses on internal control of behavior Intrapersonal approach Close to social psychological approaches

34 Humans as Computers People as information processors Similar to how computers manipulate information Shortcomings of artificial intelligence Turing Test Personality is difficult to simulate

35 Timeline: Cognitive Approach Developments in Cognitive Aspects Philosophers and theologians view individual deviations as games of the gods or possession by the devil Laboratories studying perception and thinking are founded Ancient times and Middle Ages 1800s Societal and Scientific Context Differences in perceptions seen primarily in religious or philosophical terms Increasing emphasis on reason and rationality, philosophers search for the core of human nature

36 Timeline: Cognitive Approach Developments in Cognitive Aspects Gestalt psychology takes hold in Europe Field theory ideas of Lewin and schema ideas of Piaget make their way into American psychology s- 1940s Societal and Scientific Context Experimental Psychology in U.S. is increasingly dominated by behaviorism In reaction to world war, increased studies of propaganda, attitudes, and prejudice

37 Timeline: Cognitive Approach Developments in Cognitive Aspects Kelly develops personal construct theory; educators study how children learn Rotter, Bandura, and others adapt behaviorist approaches into the cognitive framework 1940s- 1950s 1960s Societal and Scientific Context Cognitive psychology grows and behaviorism wanes; cybernetics, computers, and enhanced communications Social psychology thrives; time of social and artistic change and turmoil

38 Timeline: Cognitive Approach Developments in Cognitive Aspects Research on explanatory style, optimism and depression; learning disabilities receive much attention Studies of self-efficacy and of human-computer interactions thrive; selfregulation models develop 1970s- 1980s 1990s Societal and Scientific Context Progress in cognitive psychology; new work roles, coupled with new family structures and fewer extended families Better understandings of the individual in the work place

39 Timeline: Cognitive Approach Developments in Cognitive Aspects Greater integration of cognitive conceptions (intelligence, skill, evaluation) into personality theory 2000s Societal and Scientific Context Greater focus on the role of motivation, expectations, social factors in achievement

40 Cognitive Approach Analogy Humans as scientists and information processors

41 Cognitive Approach Advantages Explains personality through uniquely human processes of cognition Captures active nature of human thought Differences in cognitive skills are viewed as central to individuality

42 Cognitive Approach Limits Often ignores unconscious and emotional aspects of personality Some theories tend to oversimplify complex thought processes May underemphasize situational influences on behavior

43 Cognitive Approach View of free will Free will through active human thought processes

44 Cognitive Approach Common assessment techniques Decision tasks, biographical analysis, attributional analyses, study of cognitive development, observation

45 Cognitive Approach Implications for therapy Uses understanding of perception, cognition, and attribution to change thought processes Emotion and behavior can be changed by changing cognitions