Relationship Between Resilience and Coping Strategies in Competitive Sport

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1 Article Relationship Between Resilience and Coping Strategies in Competitive Sport Perceptual and Motor Skills 2016, Vol. 122(1) ! The Author(s) 2016 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.com/journalspermissions.nav DOI: / pms.sagepub.com Xabel García Secades, Olga Molinero, and Alfonso Salguero Institute of Biomedicine (IBIOMED) and Department of Physical Education and Sports, University of León, Spain Roberto Ruíz Barquín Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, Autonomous University of Madrid, Spain Ricardo de la Vega and Sara Márquez Department of Physical Education, Sports and Human Movement, Autonomous University of Madrid, Spain Abstract Resilience is important in sport performers to withstand the pressure they experience. This study analyzed the relationship among resilient qualities and coping strategies in 235 Spanish athletes (126 males, 109 females; M age ¼ 20.7 yr) who practiced different sports (79.1% team sports, 20.9% individual sports). They were evaluated at the beginning of the last competitive mesocycle and after an important competition. Coping strategies and level of resilient qualities were measured by the Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport and the Resilience Scale. There was no significant difference in resilience scores between evaluations performed during the last mesocycle or competition. A significant increase occurred in the scores for emotion-oriented and distraction-oriented coping during competition. Resilience scores correlated positively to task-oriented coping and negatively to disengagement- and distraction-oriented coping during both periods. Analysis of variance indicated that athletes with high individual resilient qualities reached higher scores in task-oriented coping, using to a lower extent disengagement- and distraction-oriented coping. Results obtained suggest that resilient characteristics may associate in athletes to the use of more potentially adaptative coping strategies. Corresponding Author: Sara Márquez, Institute of Biomedicina, University of León, Campus Universitario, León, Spain. smarr@unileon.es

2 Secades et al. 337 Keywords resilience, coping strategies, competitive sport Introduction The term resilience refers to the capacity to maintain stable functioning and to undergo adaptation in the face of significant adversity (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013; Garcı a-secades, Molinero, Salguero & Ma rquez, 2014). There are two important aspects that resilience requires: the presence or experience of adversity and the subsequent positive adaptation. It is a multidimensional construct which takes into account psychological and attitudinal attributes where people with higher resilience adapt more successfully to stressful events than do those with lower resilience (Luthar, 2006). Resilience has been studied most commonly as a broadly defined latent variable. It is important to distinguish the outcomes of resilience from the processes that produce this outcome (Garbarino, 2002). Resilience implies a process of dynamic development from interactions between people s characteristics and their environment, in which an adversity may or may not be too much for the resources of an individual. Results will depend on the nature of the event, the context, the strategies put into action, and the stage in life that has been reached (Luthar, Cicchetti & Becker, 2000; Mellalieu, Hanton, & Fletcher, 2006). The construct of resilience has been studied for decades, but only in the last few years it has begun to be explored in a sports context (Galli & Gonza lez, 2015). Athletes have to use and optimize a number of protective factors to confront stressful aspects related with competition, the sports environment or daily life (Sarkar & Fletcher, 2014). In one of the earliest studies carried out in this area, involving a group of 62 high school students practising basketball, Martin-Krumm, Sarrazin, Peterson, and Famose (2003) showed that those who had an optimistic explanatory style, identified by the Sport Explanatory Style Questionnaire, manifested less anxiety and greater self-confidence. Yi, Smith, and Vitaliano (2005) studied a group of 404 sportswomen from 52 varsity sports teams and a mean age of 17.5 yr, considering resilient those with high scores in the Adolescent Perceived Events Scale. Resilient athletes had a greater capacity to face up to problems, whereas the non-resilient used less proactive coping. Galli and Vealey (2008) interviewed ten current or former college and professional athletes, identifying by inductive analysis five general dimensions to describe the resilience experience: breadth and duration, agitation, sociocultural influences, personal resources, and positive outcomes. Hosseini and Besharat (2010) studied resilience in a sample of of 139 university student athletes who practised different individual and team sports, demonstrating the existence of a positive relationship with performance and psychological well-being, and a negative relationship with psychological disorders. In a more recent research,

3 338 Perceptual and Motor Skills 122(1) Fletcher and Sarkar (2012) interviewed 12 Olympic champions from different sports regarding their experiences of withstanding pressure during their sporting careers; they concluded by employing a grounded theory approach that exposure to strongly stressful stimuli constitutes an essential feature of the stressresilience-performance relationship in the context of competitive sport. The occurrence of stressful situations during competitions often causes changes in psychological functioning like a lessened capacity to concentrate, a loss of attention focus, a heightening of the anxiety state or, from a somatic point of view, an increase in muscle tension (Hanton, Neil, & Mellalieu, 2008). As a failure to make an adequate response to stress frequently leads to a reduced capacity for performance and even withdrawal from sports, it is clear that athletes participating competitive sports need to use psychological abilities and effective coping strategies in order to meet their expectations and improve their performance (Ma rquez, 2006; Nichols, Remco, & Polman, 2007). According to Fletcher and Sarkar (2013), it s important to distinguish between resilience and coping: resilience influences how an event is appraised and influences the stress process at multiple stages, an individual s appraisal of stressors, the meta-cognitions in response to emotions and the selection of coping strategies; whereas coping refers to the strategies employed following the appraisal of a stressful encounter. Therefore, resilience was characterized by its influence on appraisals prior to emotional and coping responses and by its positive effect, whereas coping was characterized as a specific response and by varying effectiveness in resolving outstanding issues. Coping is a multidimensional self-regulation construct that represents the behavioural and cognitive mechanisms used to manage the ongoing internal and external demands of a stressful episode (Lazarus & Folkmann, 1984). This multidimensionality has led to consider a theoretical framework having two levels of analysis: the first level categorizes coping actions into a series homogeneous strategies and the second organizes them into a limited number of dimensions (Skinner, Edge, Altman, & Sherwood, 2003). Research indicates that athletes use a variety of coping strategies to manage stress associated with competitions (Gaudreau, Nichols, and Levy, 2010). These strategies may change according to the pressure/relevance of the situation, with a tendency to use those centred in the regulation of negativity during periods of competition with higher perceived stress (Kowalski, Crocker, Hoar, & Niefer, 2005). The meta-model for stress, emotions and performance (Fletcher & Fletcher, 2005; Fletcher, Hanton & Mellalieu, 2006; Fletcher & Scott, 2010) proposes that stressors arise from the environment an individual operates in, are mediated by the processes of perception, appraisal and coping, and result in positive or negative responses, feeling states, and outcomes. According to this model, resilience influences the process of stress at different levels, including evaluation of stressors, metacognition in response to emotions and the selection of coping strategies (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013). Only one recent study,

4 Secades et al. 339 using a sample of 48 women and men volleyball players with a mean age of 18 yr, has examined the relationship between coping strategies and resilience, using the Athletic Coping Skill Inventory-28 and the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale; analysis of data by a repeated-measures ANOVA suggested that athletes were better able to face up to pressure from their environments when they used positive emotions (Belem, Malheiros, Andrade, Lopes, & Fiorese, 2014). However, this study assessed coping with a questionnaire which did not take into account the multidimensional nature of the construct. Campbell-Sills, Cohan and Stein (2006) have previously reported in a sample of college students that coping strategies could predict variance in resilience above and beyond the contributions of the personality traits task-oriented coping being positively related to resilience, while emotion-oriented coping is associated with low resilience. Coping strategies in a sports context can be studied with the ISCCS, a tool derived from a theoretical framework for coping and from experimental studies which have allowed the classification of coping strategies into second-order dimensions (Connor-Smith, Compas, Wadsworth, Thomsen, & Saltzman, 2000). The ISCCS measures three dimensions: task-oriented coping, emotionoriented coping and distraction-oriented coping in a sports context (Gaudreau & Blondin, 2002). In an earlier study, the three-dimensional Spanish version of the ISCCS was found to be a valid and reliable tool, with second-order factor loadings that were significant and values similar to those of the original instrument (Molinero et al., 2010). The use of the ISCCS has made possible to show the existence of different combinations of coping strategies under competition contexts (Gaudreau & Blondin, 2004), to identify patterns of longitudinal stability and of change in the use of coping by athletes (Louvet, Gaudreau, Menaut, Genty, & Deneuve, 2007) and referees (Louvet, Gaudreau, Menaut, Genty, & Deneuve, 2009), and to demonstrate the importance of support from coaches in the development of effective coping strategies (Nikolas, Gaudreau, & Franche, 2011). The goal of the present work was to use a Spanish version of the ISCCS to investigate the relationship between coping strategies and the individual resilient qualities in a large group of athletes at two different points during the sports season in which coping strategies could change according to the pressure/relevance of the situation. Hypothesis 1. Resilient qualities would not differ between evaluations performed during the last mesocycle or competition, but significant changes could occur in the scores for the different dimensions of coping. Hypothesis 2. High individual resilient qualities would be positively associated with task-oriented coping strategies and negatively with those strategies oriented towards emotions and distraction.

5 340 Perceptual and Motor Skills 122(1) Method Participants The sample comprised 235 subjects (126 male, 109 female) with ages ranging from 15 to 35 years (M ¼ 20.7, SD ¼ 4.3) who practised various types of sport: 79.1% team sports (soccer, handball, volleyball, rugby), 20.9% individual sports (gymnastics, athletics, cycling, triathlon). The criteria for inclusion were practising any form of sport, having experience of competitions, training at least twice per week, and having used a classic annual planning model including preparatory, competition and transition periods. Participants competed at regional (21%), national (67%) or international (12%) levels, with an experience in competitions of years. The sample trained days and hours on average per week. Procedure Participants gave consent in writing to take part in the study and to be followed up for a whole annual sports cycle. The project research received institutional ethical approval acording to Declaration of Helsinki. These sportspeople and their coaches were informed of the aims and experimental conditions of the study, and a calendar was drawn up for administration of tests. With the aim of identifying if changes in the relationship among resilience and coping strategies occur along the season, a battery of questionnaires was applied to participants in each sport at two points: just before the beginning of the last competitive mesocycle and immediately after the end of the most important competition of the season. The participants were given the battery of questionnaires and encouraged to ask as many questions as they wished about the study before starting to complete them. The instructions stated that they should read the questionnaires carefully, leave no question unanswered and respond individually and truthfully, on the basis of their own experience and in relation to the instructions specifically given in each of the tools. Measures Coping. To assess coping strategies participants completed the Spanish version (Molinero, Salguero, & Ma rquez, 2010) of the Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport (ISCCS, Gaudreau & Blondin, 2002). The questionnaire is composed of 39 items which were scored based on a 5-point scale ranging from 1(not at all)to5(very strongly). The items distributed over eight factors grouped into three second-order dimensions: task-oriented coping, emotion-oriented coping and distraction-oriented coping. Task-oriented coping included four factors: Logical analysis/effort, Seeking support, Relaxation and Mental Imagery/Thought control. Emotion-oriented coping included the factors

6 Secades et al. 341 Resignation and Venting of unpleasant emotion. Finally, distraction-oriented coping incorporated the factors Mental distraction and Disengagement (Molinero, Salguero, & Ma rquez, 2010). The reliability of the Spanish version has been previously established, with satisfactory Cronbach s alpha values both for the scales and for the dimensions, together with appropriate concurrent validity, confirmed by correlations with the CSAI-2 and PANAS scales. Furthermore, structural modelling has demonstrated the relationship between the various components of the theoretical model on which the questionnaire was based, identifying three main factors with subfactors that were nested as described above (Molinero et al., 2010). Resilience. The instrument used to measure resilience was the Spanish version (Ruiz, de la Vega, Poveda, Rosado, & Serpa, 2012) of the Resilience Scale (Wagnild & Young, 1993). The scale consists of 25 items worded positively. The questions were scored based on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7(strongly agree). Scores higher than 145 were taken as indicating high resilience, scores between 121 and 145 as moderate resilience, and scores of 120 or under as low resilience. Psychometric characteristics of the adapted scale have been already established by confirmatory factor analysis in a group of 110 young footballers, with an adequate internal consistency (a ¼.80) and test-retest reliability (Ruiz et al., 2012). Participants were also administered a sociodemographic questionnaire including information on sex, age, or competitive experience. Statistical Analysis Descriptive statistics were calculated on the results of the two questionnaires. All measures were normally distributed, as determined by the Shapiro-Wilks test. The associations between different measures were assessed by correlation analysis, controlling for sex and age. In order to determine how measure of resilient qualities associated with coping strategies in the different season periods, values for the different first- and second-order dimensions of the ISCCS were used as dependent variables in a 3 (resilience levels) x 2 (evaluation) multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) with age and sex as covariates. Effect sizes were calculated as partial eta squared, 2 p. A Bonferroni test was performed for post hoc analyses to assess differences. All analyses were conducted using the SPSS for Windows software, version 18.0 (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL, USA), and statistical significance level was set at p <.05. Results As expected from a relatively stable construct, no significant differences were found between resilience during the last mesocycle and after an important

7 342 Perceptual and Motor Skills 122(1) Table 1. Relationship among Resilience Levels and Coping Strategies (N ¼ 235). First Evaluation Second Evaluation Scale Or Dimension r 95%CI r 95%CI TOC.15 *.02, y.24,.45 Logical analysis/effort.10.03, y.17,.41 Seeking support.07.06, *.04,.29 Relaxation.14 *.01, y.12,.36 Mental imagery/ Though control.33 y.20, y.25,.48 EOC.30 y.25, y.35,.11 Resignation.37 y.46, y.37,.13 Venting of unpleasant emotion.19 *.27, y.30,.05 DOC.17 *.29, y.25,.01 Mental distraction.15 *.27, y.30,.05 Disengagement.13 *.25, ,.06 Note. Resilience and coping strategies were measured by the Coping Inventory for Competitive Sport and the Resilience Scale.TOC, Task-oriented coping; EOC, Emotion-oriented coping; DOC, Distractionoriented coping.; 1, Logical analysis/effort; 2, Seeking support; 3, Relaxation; 4, Mental imagery/though control; 5, Resignation; 6, Venting of unpleasant emotion; 7, Mental distraction; 8, Disengagement. * p <.05, y p <.01. competition. Table 1 shows the correlations between resilience and the various factors and second-order dimensions of the ISCCS in the two evaluations. The Pearson correlation coefficients indicated that resilience correlated positively with Task-oriented coping and negatively with Emotion-oriented coping and Distraction-oriented coping. Among Task-oriented coping strategies, only Relaxation and Mental images showed significant correlations with resilience both in the mesocycle and after the competition, whilst Logical analysis/effort and Seeking support did so only in the second evaluation. As for Emotionoriented coping strategies, both Mental imagery/thought control and Resignation showed negative correlations with resilience in the two evaluations. Finally, the Distraction-oriented coping strategy Mental distraction correlated negatively with resilience in mesocycle and competition, whilst Disengagement did so only during the mesocycle. When a multivariate analysis of variance was conducted with sex and age as covariates, the effect of the covariates was not significant: for age, Wilks ¼ 0.95, F(1,462) ¼ 1.53, p <.12, 2 p ¼ 0.28; for gender, Wilks ¼ 0.96, F(1,462) ¼ 1.75, p <.07, 2 p ¼ 0.33, and the model could thus be reduced to a simple MANOVA. The results indicated a significant resilience main effect, Wilks ¼ 0.86, F(2,462) ¼ 3.60, p <.001, 2 p ¼ 0.24, and evaluation main effect, Wilks ¼ 0.90, F(1,462) ¼ 2.27, p <.01, 2 p ¼ 0.01, with no significant

8 Secades et al. 343 interaction, Wilks ¼ 0.94, F(2,462) ¼ 1.29, p <.18, 2 p ¼ Follow-up univariate analysis indicated that during both the first and the second evaluations there were significant differences in the various ISCCS factors between participants with different resilience scores (Table 2). Participants with lower resilience scored higher on Emotion-oriented coping and Distraction-oriented coping. In contrast, higher scores on resilience were associated with lower scores on secondorder dimensions, whilst higher scores were observed on Task-oriented coping. Consideration of the various factors included in each of the dimensions of the ISCCS indicated significant differences as a function of resilience during the first evaluation only for the factors Relaxation and Mental imagery/thought control. However, after competition such differences were also noted for Logical analysis/effort and Seeking support. In relation to Emotion-oriented coping strategies, differences were observed between subjects with differing resilience both for Resignation and for Venting of unpleasant emotion in both evaluations. As for Distraction-oriented coping strategies, participants with high resilience showed significantly lower scores for Disengagement during the first evaluation and for Mental distraction in both evaluations. Differences among scores in mesocycle and competition were detected for the different resilience levels in the first- and second-order dimensions of the ISCCS, with significantly higher scores for Emotion-oriented coping and Distraction-oriented coping during the second evaluation. Discussion Resilience is one of the factors permitting sportspeople to achieve success and overcome adversities that they meet during their careers. Hence, study of the resilience takes on great importance in helping to determine whether athletes will be able to get through the threatening situations that they must face to attain and maintain optimum execution (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2003, 2013). This was the context for the analysis of the relationship between resilience and coping strategies in a sample of competitive participants. In the present study the dimensions of the ISCCS changed during the second evaluation, which corresponded to a major competition, relative to the values observed before the last mesocycle. A significant increase occurred in the scores for Emotion-oriented and Distraction-oriented coping. Previous studies have shown that during periods of competition associated with an increase in perceived stress, as might happen in a major event, there is a greater tendency to use actions aimed at changing the significance of the situation and regulating resultant negative emotions or at concentrating briefly on stimuli not related to the stressful situation (Kowalski, Crocker, Hoar, & Niefer, 2005). In contrast, the Resilience Scale scores did not differ significantly between the two evaluations, as expected from this relatively stable construct (Lee, Nam, Kim, Kim, & Lee, 2013).

9 344 Perceptual and Motor Skills 122(1) Table 2. Differences in Coping Strategies as a Function of Resilience Levels (N ¼ 235). Low resilience Medium resilience High resilience Scale Or Dimension M SD M SD M SD First Evaluation TOC * * Logical analysis/effort Seeking support Relaxation * * Mental imagery/ Though control * * EOC * *y Resignation * *y Venting of unpleasant emotion *y DOC *y Mental distraction *y Disengagement * Second Evaluation TOC * * Logical analysis/effort * * Seeking support * Relaxation * * Mental imagery/ Though control * * EOC z z *z Resignation *z *z Venting of unpleasant emotion z *z DOC z z *yz Mental distraction z z *z Disengagement z z Note. TOC, Task-oriented coping; EOC, Emotion-oriented coping; DOC, Distraction-oriented coping. * Significantly different from low resilience, same evaluation; y Significantly different from medium resilience, same evaluation; z Significantly different from first evaluation, same level of resilience. p <.05. Scores for the dimensions of coping centred on emotions and distraction correlated negatively with resilience, whilst the task-oriented dimension correlated positively. The only study hitherto undertaken on the relationship between resilience and coping strategies, using a small sample of Brazilian volleyball players (Belem et al., 2014), analysed coping by using the Athletic Coping

10 Secades et al. 345 Skills Inventory-28 (Smith, Schutz, Smoll, & Ptacek, 1995), which does not take into account the multidimensional nature of the construct. The results obtained permitted to identify the presence of significant positive correlations between high resilience and various factors in the scale, such as coping with adversity or personal coping resources. The present study showed, more specifically, that resilience correlated positively with task-oriented coping, a good predictor of positive results in stressful situations (Skinner, Edge, Altman, & Sherwood, 2003; Bois, Sarrazin, Southon, & Boiche, 2009). On the other hand, distractionoriented coping, which in the present investigation correlated negatively with resilience, has been negatively associated in the literature with sporting performance and with both objective and subjective achievement indicators (Gaudreau, Nichols, & Levi, 2010). It must be emphasized that while resilience is a relatively stable construct, coping strategies may change according to the pressure/relevance of the situation (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013). This could explain why in spite of the existence of significant correlations between resilience and the dimensions of coping strategies, the proportion of shared variance between the two variables may differ between both evaluation periods (i.e., was higher for resilience and task-oriented coping during the second evaluation). The data obtained through analysis of variance made it possible to go deeper into the relationship between coping strategies and the resilience score, making it plain that from the last competitive mesocycle of the season there were differences in second-order factors of the ISCCS between subjects with differing resilience scores, in that scores for task-oriented coping strategies were higher and those corresponding to emotion- and distraction-oriented coping were lower with high resilience. Factors like Relaxation and Mental imagery/thought control were higher with high resilience during both evaluation periods, while after the competition differences also appeared in the factors Logical analysis/effort and Seeking support. Data suggest that those with high resilience may have developed strategies that aid in mobilizing resources to permit facing up to the demands of situations in an active way. On the other hand, strategies such as Resignation, Venting of unpleasant emotion, Mental distraction or Disengagement, which may reduce the capacity to handle the requirements of a situation, may be used by those with lower resilience. Task-oriented coping is seen as an orientation of self-regulation resources towards the specific task, whilst emotion- or distraction-oriented coping draw resources away from the situation (Gaudreau et al., 2010). Consequently, another hypothesis to be tested is that the first type of strategy would allow levels of functioning and competence to be kept relatively stable or a positive adaptation to an adverse context to be experienced, supposing the existence of high resilience. Results obtained suggest that high resilient qualities associate with coping strategies that might contribute to more effectively adapt to challenges and possible failures in competitive sports. Although more research is required to

11 346 Perceptual and Motor Skills 122(1) confirm and expand results here obtained, enhanced resilience might contribute to better sports performance. Nevertheless, certain limitations of the study must be recognized. Consideration of a larger sample, more diverse on type of sport practised or experience, would allow a more complete view of the levels of organization of the coping strategies measured. Moreover, the correlational design of the study does not permit inferences of causality. Finally, given the limitations of the measure of resilience, and other psychometric issues associated with the assessment of resilience in sport performers (Sarkar & Fletcher, 2013), the need exist to develop a sport-specific questionnaire of psychological resilience. Acknowledgment This study was supported by the Ca tedra Real Madrid-UEM, Spain. Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Funding The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. References Belem, I. C., Malheiros, N., Andrade, J. R., Lopes, J. L., & Fiorese, L. (2014). Impact of coping strategies on resilience of elite beach volleyball athletes. Revista Brasileira de Cineantropometria, 16(4), Bois, J. E., Sarrazin, P., Southon, J., & Boiche, C. S. (2009). Psychological characteristics and their relation to performance in professional golfers. The Sport Psychologist, 23, Campbell-Sills, L., Cohan, S. L., & Stein, M. B. (2006). Relationship of resilience to personality, coping, and psychiatric symptoms in young adults. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(4), Connor-Smith, J. K., Compas, B. E., Wadsworth, M. E., Thomsen, A. H., & Saltzman, H. (2000). Response to stress in adolescence: Measurement of coping and involuntary stress responses. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(6), Fletcher, D., & Fletcher, J. (2005). A meta-model of stress, emotions and performance: Conceptual foundations, theoretical framework, and research directions. Journal of Sports Sciences, 23(2), Fletcher, D., Hanton, S., & Mellalieu, S. D. (2006). An organizational stress review: Conceptual and theoretical issues in competitive sport. In S. Hanton & S. D. Mellalieu (Eds.), Literature reviews in sport psychology (pp ). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science. Fletcher, D., & Sarkar, M. (2003). A review and critique of definitions, concepts, and theory. European Psychologist, 18(1),

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14 Secades et al. 349 Author Biographies Xabel Garcı a Secades, B.Sc., is a Ph.D. student at University of Leo n, Spain with research interests in Applied sport psychology, sport performance. Olga Molinero, Ph.D., is Assistant Lecturer in Physical Education and Sports at University of Leo n, Spain with research interests in Applied sport psychology, physical activity and health. Alfonso Salguero, B.Sc., Ph.D., is Senior Lecturer in Physical Education and Sports at University of Leo n, Spain with research interests in Physical education, applied sport psychology. Roberto Ruı z Barquı n, B.Sc., Ph.D., is Senior Research Fellow in Sport Psychology at Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain with research interests in Sport performance, applied sport psychology. Ricardo de la Vega, B.Sc., Ph.D., is Senior Research Fellow in Sport Psychology at Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain with research interests in Applied sport psychology, sport performance. Sara Ma rquez, B.Sc., Ph.D., is Full Professor of Sport Psychology at University of Leo n, Spain with research interests in Applied sport psychology, physical activity and health.