The Effects of Music Tempo and Genre on State Anxiety. Allison L. Kuperman. Tufts University

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1 Running Head: MUSIC EFFECTS ON ANXIETY The Effects of Music Tempo and Genre on State Anxiety Allison L. Kuperman Tufts University Author Note Allison Kuperman, Department of Psychology, Tufts University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Allison Kuperman, Department of Psychology, Tufts University, 322 Lewis Hall, Medford, Massachusetts E- mail: This research was completed in collaboration with members of the Tufts University PSY32 Section B Lab Erik Fink, Lauren Taylor, Yun Huang, Lauren Behlke, and Kara Cochran.

2 Abstract Although the effects of and interactions among specific aspects of music are unclear, prior research found that music has the capacity to alter and physiological states, attitudes, and behaviors. The present study, a 2x2 mixed factorial design manipulating both tempo and genre, sought to assess the hypothesis that exposure to high-tempo music during a mild stressor task will result in higher levels of states anxiety than exposure to low-tempo music. It was also predicted that participants in the high-tempo electronic condition would demonstrate significantly higher levels of state anxiety than participants in the high-tempo classical condition. Forty college students were assigned to either a high- or low-tempo condition. The study involved two sessions, exposing participants to both electronic and classical samples of music while working on two different word searches. After working a word search for one minute, the participant was administered a questionnaire including the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (shortform). High-tempo music elicited significantly higher levels of state anxiety than low-tempo music, F(1, 38) = 6.525, p =.015, supporting the hypothesis. However, the hypothesis was not supported, as alterations of genre did not have a significant effect on state anxiety, F(1, 38) = 3.708, p =.062, and there was not a significant interaction between tempo and genre, F(1, 38) =. 183, p =.671. Nonetheless, the results further efforts to define the conditions under which music can alter or enhance experiences.

3 The Effects of Music Tempo and Genre on State Anxiety The existence of pump-up playlists for workouts and relaxing soundtracks for waiting rooms and yoga studios speaks to the pervasive notion that music can influence individual states, attitudes, and behaviors. However, the interplay of contextual associations, cultural significance, psychological interpretation, and physiological response that determine the overall effect of a song complicate the methodology of studying music. Nevertheless, even if the precise psychological processes that dictate the impact of a song remain unclear, it is necessary to explore the influence of the various attributes of music, such as tone, mood, pitch, and tempo, in order to allow for its practical application. Previous literature has demonstrated that music can alter experiences by influencing levels of arousal. For example, in Stratton s (1992) study of 90 undergraduate college students, individuals waited for the study to begin either in silence or while listening to soothing music. Based on visual cues of stress, Stratton asserted that those who waited in silence appeared more active and more anxious than those who waited while listening to music. Diverging from the subjective observations of Stratton s study, Miluk-Kolasa and Matejek (1996) measured blood pressure, heart rate, cardiac output, skin temperature, and glucose levels to assess the physiological stress of participants both before and after they were informed of an imminent surgical procedure. Again comparing the presence of soothing music to silence, Miluk-Kolasa and Matejek (1996) found that participants exposed to soothing music returned to their original state of physiological arousal more quickly than those who waited in silence. Because high physiological arousal is an indicator of high levels of stress, the research demonstrates that music

4 can influence anxiety. However, the studies did not attempt to determine the specific attributes of soothing music that dictated the physiological response. Husain, Thompson, and Schellenberg (2002) assessed the mood and arousal of participants after exposure to samples that varied in tempo (fast and slow) and mode (major and minor). The researchers found that tempo affected arousal but not mood, while mode affected mood but not arousal. Since it has been theorized that psychological attribution of high states of arousal could result in stress (Reisenzein, 1983) and that knowledge of an individual s valence (positive or negative) and arousal allow for predictions of a wide variety of dependent variables (Reisenzein, 1994), further exploration of the attributes of a song that temper or interact with tempo is necessary before music can be optimized for therapeutic use. In a study of the effects of high-tempo and low-tempo electronic music on the perceive stress of a task, Kuperman (2013) found that tempo alone did not significantly influence the perceived stress. The results suggest that manipulations of tempo alone do not significantly alter stress states. Trappe (2010) began to investigate participant reactions to manipulations of multiple aspects of music, comparing the physiological and cognitive responses to a classical song, a heavy metal song, and a techno song. Like the current study, Trappe (2010) relied on the State- Trait Anxiety Inventory to assess the participants opinions on their levels of stress. Trappe (2010) found that the classical song reduced anxiety, depressive symptoms, cardiovascular disturbances, and sleep disturbances, while the heavy metal and techno songs encouraged rage and increased aggressive attitudes, blood pressure, and heart rate. Krumhansl (1997) also found that exposure to different types of music result in different physiological responses, with music described as sad decreasing heart rate and increasing blood pressure, frightening music

5 increasing pulse transmission time and decreasing pulse amplitude (physiological indicators of anxiety), and happy music decreasing depth of respiration. Although these studies provide evidence that the response to music may depend on the genre, the study does not isolate genre as the sole manipulation. As such, it is unclear whether it is the genre manipulation that causes the varying cognitive and physiological states or variations in other aspects of the stimuli, such as tempo or pitch. Further elucidating the contributions of different aspects of music to a piece s overall effect, Pelletier (2004) conducted a meta-analysis of 22 experiments, concluding that relaxing music does significantly decrease physiological arousal. However, the extent to which the music decreases arousal was difficult to predict and depended on age, the stressor used in the study, musical preference, and previous experience. In an investigation of the influence of musical preference on effects of the song, Burns, Labbe, Williams, and McCall (1999) compared the states of relaxation (determined by both self-report and physiological response) elicited by a predetermined classical sample, a predetermined rock sample, a relaxing sample chosen by each participant, and silence. While self-reported relaxation was lowest for those exposed to the rock sample and highest for those in the control and those who self-selected music, the manipulations did not result in any significant physiological differences. The inconclusive results regarding the effects of musical genre necessitate additional research into possible interactions among genre and other attributes a song. Although prior research reliably reports that music has the capacity to influence physiological and psychological states (Stratton, 1992; Miluk-Kolasa & Matejek, 1996; Trappe, 2010; Krumhansl, 1997) few studies have attempted to isolate the individual factors of a song

6 that determine its effect. Furthermore, studies that have investigated participant response to certain aspects of music, such as have not adequately explored the interactions that may occur among the elements (Burns et al., 1999; Pelletier, 2004). Thus, a mixed factorial experimental study was designed in which participants listened to either high-tempo or low-tempo samples of a variety of musical genres while executing a mild stressor task. Unlike Kuperman (2013), in which poor operationalization of low-tempo music may have resulted in inaccurate analysis of stress, the current study used high-tempo and low-tempo samples based on tempos that elicited significantly different levels of arousal in previous research (Husain et al., 2002; Balch & Lewis, 1999). Directly following exposure to each sample, the participants completed a brief questionnaire involving the short-form State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) to assess their levels of anxiety. The anxiety scores were then analyzed to determine if statistically significant differences in mean anxiety score existed between the participants in each condition. It has been demonstrated that exposure to music can alter levels of anxiety (Stratton, 1992; Miluk-Kolasa and Matejek, 1996). Reisenzein (1983, 1994) reported that perceived levels of anxiety can result from a combination of high arousal and negative mood, which suggests that the aspects of music that influence each of these dimensions could be manipulated to alter states of anxiety. Husain et al. (2002) isolated tempo as an aspect of music that can influence arousal, with higher tempos resulting in increased arousal and lower tempos resulting in decreased arousal, but did not investigate how these alterations in arousal may affect psychological states. Pelletier (2004) named genre, among other factors, as an aspect of music that could temper the effects of tempo. Further defining the effects of genre, Trappe (2010) found that the physiologically arousing nature of techno and heavy metal songs (often associated with higher

7 tempos) elicited higher levels of anxiety than relaxing, classical music (often associated with lower tempos). As such, it is not only predicted that participants in the high-tempo condition will demonstrate significantly higher levels of state anxiety than participants in the low-tempo condition, but also that participants in the high-tempo electronic condition will demonstrate significantly higher levels of state anxiety than participants in the high-tempo classical condition. Method Participants Participants were 40 college students (11 males, 29 females; mean age = 20.0 years, SD = ) recruited through convenience sampling on the Tufts University campus. Age of the participants ranged from 18 to 23 years. After two participants were assigned to one tempo condition, the next two participants were assigned to the other tempo condition, allowing for counterbalancing of music genre and diminishing the likelihood of environmental confounds or carryover effects. This method resulted in 20 participants executing the tasks while listening to high-tempo classical and electronic music, while the other 20 participants executed the tasks while listening to low-tempo classical and electronic music. Materials In one session of this study, participants listened to a sample of either a high- or lowtempo classical song (determined by beats per minute [bpm]) while completing a mild cognitive stress task (a word-search puzzle). In the other session of this study, participants listened to a sample of either a high- or low-tempo electronic song (also determined by bpm) while completing another mild cognitive stress task (a different word search). The high-tempo electronic song was Up Up and Away by Tom Quick (128 bpm) (Quick, 2013). The low-

8 tempo electronic song was Alchemy 3 (65 bpm), also by Tom Quick (Quick, 2009). The hightempo classical song was Busy Bee by Robert Bruce (112 bpm) (Bruce, 2013). The low-tempo classical song was Royal Welcome (76 bpm), also by Robert Bruce (Bruce, 2011). During the study, the songs were played from a MacBook Pro with sound at full volume. During each session, participants worked on an 8.5 x11 printout of either a trees-themed or astronomy-themed word search, both provided by Livewire Puzzles (Livewire Puzzles, 2004). The tree-themed word search contained 40 words hidden in 361 letters (19 x19 letters). The astronomy-themed word search contained 44 words hidden in 361 letters (19x19 letters). After the participant listened to the music stimulus while working on the word search for one minute, the researcher collected the word search and administered a brief questionnaire. The first two questions gathered demographic information, asking What is your age? and What is your gender? Participants then completed the Spielberg STAI, a six-item questionnaire that measures fluctuations in anxiety (Marteau & Bekker, 1992). The STAI has participants indicate to what extent the following adjectives describe them at the moment: relaxed, steady, strained, comfortable, worried, and tense. Responses were scored utilizing a four-point Likert scale with the anchors not at all (1), a little (2), somewhat (3), and very much (4). The score from these six questions was used to determine how the genre and tempo of the music played during the task interacted to affect participant anxiety. The last two items on the questionnaire asked participants What type of music did you hear?, providing the options Electronic and Classical, and What tempo music did you hear?, providing the options Low tempo and High Tempo. These two items served as manipulation checks, assessing if the participant accurately perceived the sample as high- or low-

9 tempo and electronic or classical, depending on the session. Because participants were forced to choose between the two options of tempo and genre provided on the questionnaire, more subconscious perceptions of the manipulation also contributed toward the assessment of the construct validity of the independent variables. Procedure The study was executed with a 2x2 mixed factorial design, measuring the effects of music tempo and genre on the subject s anxiety, which was assessed with the short-form STAI (Marteau & Bekker, 1992). The tempo of music varied between subjects: twenty participants were assigned to the high-tempo condition, listening to high-tempo samples while executing the tasks, and the other twenty participants were assigned to the low-tempo condition, listening to lowtempo samples while executing the tasks. Genre of music varied within-subjects: all participants in the study completed one word search while listening to a sample of classical music and the other word search while listening to a sample of electronic music. Participants were selected through convenience sampling carried out on the Tufts University campus. The first participant of the study was assigned to the low-tempo condition, listening to the classical sample while completing the first word search and the electronic sample while completing the second word search. The second participant of the study was also assigned to the low-tempo condition, but was exposed to the electronic sample during the first session and the classical sample during the second session. The third and fourth participants were assigned to the high-tempo condition, and the researchers again alternated the order in which the participants were exposed to the two genres of music. This pattern of counterbalancing, combined with alternating the order in which the two different word searchers were presented,

10 persisted throughout the study. These practices diminished the likelihood that environmental confounds or carryover effects from the order of the treatments influenced the results. To ensure ethical treatment of participants, researchers obtained approval from the Tufts University Institutional Review Board before running the study and followed American Psychological Association ethical guidelines throughout the process. Before agreeing to participate in the study, individuals were administered an informed consent form that ensured that they were familiar with the nature of the study, that they were aware that they could exit the study at any time without repercussion, that their responses were completely anonymous, and that they met the subject qualifications (at least 18 years old and currently enrolled in college). The informed consent form also noted that there were no foreseeable risks, costs to the individual, direct benefits, or compensation that accompanied participation in the study. The slight increase in levels of anxiety predicted to result from the study was determined to be minimal risk, as it would not exceed the impact of routine stressors encountered during daily life. Upon signing the informed consent form, individuals were told that would be participating in a study in which they would listen to a song while completing a word search and subsequently fill out a short questionnaire. In order to increase the likelihood that the word search task could induce stress, the researcher instructed the participant to find as many words as possible during in one minute. The researcher also told the participant that they would repeat the process while listening to a different sample of music during the task. All sessions of the study took place in an empty study room in either Lewis Hall, Wren Hall, of Hillsides at Tufts University.

11 After the participant worked one of the word searches while listening to the music sample for one minute, the researcher stopped the music, collected the word search, and administered the questionnaire, instructing the participant to return it to the researcher when finished. Data analysis was used to determine if there was any interaction of music tempo and genre in inducing anxiety. The responses to item 1 ( Relaxed ), item 2 ( Steady ), and item 4 ( Comfortable ) were reverse coded so that 1=4, 2=3, 3=2, and 4=1. After reverse coding, higher scores on the STAI indicated higher levels of participant stress. Researchers also analyzed the responses to the manipulation checks to determine if participants perceived the sample s genre and tempo, as a complete lack of awareness could indicate that the anxiety induced during the study was caused by factors other than music tempo or music genre. After the subjects completed the study, they were administered a debriefing form to elucidate the purpose of the study, inform the participant of the hypothesis, reinforce participant anonymity, and suggest previous research to further the participant s understanding of the area of research. Results It was predicted that in the high-tempo music condition, anxiety will be significantly higher in the electronic music condition compared to the classical music condition. However, in the low-tempo music condition, stress will only be slightly higher in the electronic music condition compared to the classical music condition. To support the hypothesis, the results of the study would have to demonstrate that difference between the mean anxiety score of participants in the high-tempo music condition and the mean anxiety score of participants in the low-tempo music condition is statistically significant (a p value less than.05), with high-tempo music

12 evoking greater levels of anxiety. The results would also have to demonstrate that the effects of high-tempo music are most evident when the music is electronic. Considering the manipulation check for tempo, of the ten participants in the low-tempo classical condition, 95% correctly identified the sample as low-tempo, while 5% identified the sample as high-tempo. Of the ten participants in the high-tempo electronic condition 70% correctly identified the music as high-tempo, while 30% identified the music as low-tempo. All participants in the low-tempo electronic and high-tempo classical conditions correctly identified the tempo of the sample. The Chi-square results of the manipulation check for tempo were statistically significant and revealed that the manipulation for tempo was effective, χ2 (1, N = 40) = , p <.000 when the participants heard classical music and χ2 (1, N = 40) = , p <. 000 when the participants heard electronic music. The manipulation for genre was also effective, as all participants accurately identified the genre of the sample. After the necessary questions were reverse coded, the responses to the state-trait anxiety inventory were analyzed with a two-way ANOVA. Across all experimental groups, the mean stress score was calculated to be (SE =.091) with a 95% confidence interval ranging from to Dividing the participants by tempo, those in the low-tempo condition had a mean stress score of (SE =.129) with a 95% confidence interval ranging from to 1.987, while those in the high-tempo condition had a mean stress score of (SE =.129) with a 95% confidence interval ranging from to The main effect of the tempo manipulation was significant, F(1, 38) = 6.525, p =.015, with exposure to high-tempo music resulting in significantly higher levels of state anxiety than exposure to low-tempo music.

13 Comparing the state anxiety levels reported after exposure to classical music to the state anxiety levels reported after exposure to electronic music, the classical sample yielded a mean anxiety score of (SE =.099) with a 95% confidence interval ranging from to 2.235, while the electronic sample yielded a mean anxiety score of (SE =.099) with a 95% confidence interval ranging from to The main effect of music genre was not significant, F(1, 38) = 3.708, p =.062, suggesting that levels of anxiety are not determined solely by the type of music to which an individual is exposed. Tempo of music and genre of music did not demonstrate an interaction, F(1, 38) =.183, p =.671. In accordance with the hypothesis, higher tempos did elicit more anxiety than lower tempos. However, alterations of genre alone did not elicit significantly different levels of state anxiety. Additionally, statistical testing to determine the significance of the difference between the means of each condition (see Table 1) revealed that the two manipulations do not interact, suggesting that the effect of high-tempo music does not depend on the genre of sample, and the effect of the genre does not depend on the tempo of music. Thus, the hypothesis regarding the nature of the interaction between tempo and genre was not supported. Discussion Analysis of the data suggests that exposure to high-tempo music during a mild stressor task causes significantly higher levels of state anxiety than exposure to low-tempo music during a mild stressor task. However, the genre of music playing during the mild stressor task does not have a significant effect on the resulting levels of state anxiety. Additionally, the effects of tempo do not depend on the genre of the sample, and the effects of genre do not depend on the tempo of the sample, meaning there is no significant interaction between the two variables.

14 Thus, although the data does support the aspect of the hypothesis that predicted higher tempos would elicit more anxiety than lower tempos, the hypothesis is ultimately disproven, as hightempo electronic music did not result in significantly higher levels of state anxiety than hightempo classical music. In accordance with previous studies (Stratton, 1992; Miluk-Kolasa & Matejek, 1996), the current study found that music has the capacity to decrease anxiety. According to Reinsenzein (1983, 1994), high physiological arousal is associated with high levels of anxiety. As such, the higher levels of state anxiety elicited by high tempos throughout this study support the effect of tempo illustrated by the findings of Pelletier (2004), Balch and Lewis (1999), and Husain et al. (2002). The study builds on the results of Husain et al. (2002) by revealing that although tempo may not vary in a predictable manner with mood, manipulations of tempo can still alter psychological states. Since the current study found that tempo alone can significantly affect levels of stress, the contradictory results of Kuperman (2013) may have been due to poor construct validity of the manipulation (participants were largely unable to distinguish between the high-tempo and lowtempo conditions). The insignificant main effect of the genre manipulation suggests that the differing physiological responses to classical music, heavy metal music, and techno music demonstrated by Trappe (2010) and to sad music, frightening music, and happy music demonstrated by Krumhansl (1997) could be attributed to interactions among varying aspects of the samples. Similarly, the significant variance of self-reported anxiety after exposure to classical music, rock music, a participant-chosen relaxing sample, and silence could be accredited to interactions between genre and other musical aspects.

15 According to Reisenzein (1983), anxiety can occur if an individual associates negative emotion with high arousal. Regarding the current study, it is possible that the very low-tempo electronic song did not elicit the negative emotions resulting from exposure to more moderatetempo electro music, causing the conclusions of the Trappe (2010) study to no longer apply to the justification of a prediction. Because the low-tempo electronic sample was slow enough to cease resembling electronic music with which the participants would be familiar, the genre of the music became less relevant, explaining the lack of a significant main effect of genre. Future studies should involve participant completion of a slightly more stressful task during exposure to the music sample, such as verbal arithmetic, to increase the potential that the presence of varying genres of music could either mitigate or exacerbate anxiety induced by the task. A more stressful task could increase the range of state anxiety scores, facilitating the discovery of an existing interaction. Adding a control group (executing the stressor task in silence) could contribute to accurate interpretation of the anxiety scores of those in the experimental conditions, as the mean anxiety score of the control group could serve as a baseline to which all other results could be compared. Thus, the researcher could more easily ascertain if the treatment had a meaningful effect on the measured variable. Research that spans a longer period of time than the current study (involving multiple sessions completed over several weeks) could investigate how exposure to various types of music affect long-term attitudes and behaviors. Future studies should also operationalize additional aspects of genre (as opposed to just subjective assignment of songs to genre categories) or operationalize more aspects of songs (such as mode, pitch, or rhythm). Continuing to break down music into measurable factors will

16 further efforts to define what types of songs elicit certain physiological states, psychological states, or abilities (for example, memory). The accuracy of the assessment of participant state anxiety is limited by the restriction to only subjective psychological measures. Anxiety results from a complex interaction of physiological arousal and negative mood (Reisenzein, 1983). Because the current study used self-report to determine levels of anxiety, it relied on participant self-awareness of psychological states to measure the dependent variable. Subjectivity facilitates error, which hinders the recognition of true effect. While previous studies of the influence of music establish the reliability of the measure through objective assessment of heart rate, blood pressure, cardiac output, skin temperature, glucose levels, pulse amplitude, pulse transmission time, and depth of respiration (Miluk-Kolasa & Matejek, 1996; Krumhansl, 1997), these studies can only draw conclusions about the physiological effects of music. As such, to most effectively evaluate hypotheses regarding the influence of music on psychological states, future studies should integrate both subjective measures (such as observation and self-report) and objective measures to augment the reliability of the measure and thus the accuracy of the results. The external validity of the study is limited by the narrow age range of participants: According to Anderson (2007), electronic dance music (EDM) is specifically targeted toward the demographic. As such, the influence of classical and electronic music may have been determined by the familiarity of the participants with the genres. Because college students are highly familiar with EDM, they may be accustom to working while listening to electronic music, decreasing the likelihood that electronic music, regardless of the tempo, would elicit anxiety. Supporting this notion, Copley (2008) noted that the typically arousing effect of

17 heavy metal, grunge, and screamo music is tempered if an individual is accustom to the type of music. To reduce the influence of individual characteristics on the anxiety scores, future studies should evaluate a wider variety of participants, potentially using stratified random sampling to establish a representative segment of the population. One strength of the current study is the construct validity of the tempo manipulation. Husain et al. (2002) (using 165 bpm and 60 bpm samples), along with Balch and Lewis (1999) (using 140 bpm and 60 bpm samples), established high and low tempos that are evidenced to elicit physiological responses. As such, the high-tempo songs (112 and 128 bpm for classical and electronic respectively) and low-tempo songs (76 bpm and 65 bpm respectively) were chosen to somewhat resemble the tempos of the previously tested music. The wide gap between the tempo of the sample in the high-tempo condition and the tempo of the sample in the lowtempo condition allowed researchers to identify the alterations in state anxiety caused by the manipulation. Additionally, the high-tempo and low-tempo songs of each genre were by the same artist, eliminating the potential third variables and increasing the accuracy of the results. The success of the operationalization of the independent variables is demonstrated through the statistically significant results of each manipulation check. Another strength of the study is the incorporation of counterbalancing, with every possible order of treatment conditions executed an equal number of times. The first participant in the study was assigned to the low-tempo condition and was exposed to the classical sample during the first session and the electronic sample during the second session. The second participant was assigned to the low-tempo condition and listened the electronic sample during the first session and the classical sample during the second session. The third and fourth

18 participants were assigned to the high-tempo condition, and the order in which the genres of music were presented was switched. In addition to these cycles of treatment conditions, researchers alternated the order in which they administered the two different word searches. Effective counterbalancing decreases the likelihood that priming, sequence effects, carryover effects, or environmental confounds influenced the accuracy of the measurements and allows researchers to be more confident in their assessment of causal relationships explored during the study. However, despite the counterbalancing, the lack of consistent testing environment served as another limitation of the current study. Because the study was run in a variety of locations, it is researchers cannot discount the possibility that differences evident in the results were caused by differences in testing environment. As such, researchers should ensure that future iterations of this study involve all subjects tested in the same location to eliminate environmental confounds. Because both previous studies and the current study found that music has some capacity to manipulate attitudes and behaviors, it has the potential to serve as an effective therapeutic tool. Although the influence of each individual aspect of a song remains unclear, both prior research and the current study demonstrated that low-tempo, relaxing music can reduce physiological arousal and expressions of discomfort (Stratton, 1992; Miluk-Kolasa & Matejek, 1996; Husain et al., 2002; Trappe, 2010; Pelletier, 2004; Krumhansl, 1997). As such, songs that resemble the samples used in studies to decrease arousal could be incorporated into medical and therapeutic contexts to facilitate relaxation. Further investigation into the influence of various attributes of music allows researchers to manipulate more complex psychological states, abilities, attitudes, and behaviors. For example, after identifying optimal songs to alter arousal and mood, music

19 can be utilized to increase memory retention, recall, and test performance, as well as manipulate consumer or athletic behavior. The goal of this study was to determine how music tempo and genre interact to influence levels of state anxiety. As predicted, there was a main effect of tempo, with exposure to hightempo samples resulting in significantly more state anxiety than exposure to low-tempo samples. However, the prediction regarding interaction between the two manipulations was not supported, with the data revealing no interaction between tempo and genre. This study demonstrates that tempo has a greater influence on anxiety than genre, suggesting that relaxing music does not have to be limited to the classical genre. Additionally, it further demonstrates how the attributes of music can be manipulated to elicit desired attitudes and behaviors.

20 References Anderson, T.L. (2007). Rave Culture and the Contemporary Electronic Dance Music Scene. Retrieved from Balch, W.R. & Lewis, B.S. (1999). Music-dependent memory: The roles of tempo changes and mood mediation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22, doi: / Bruce, R. (2011). Royal Welcome. On Small Ensembles Album [Audio file]. New York, NY: Audio Network Plc. Bruce, R. (2013). Busy Bee. On Quartet Album [Audio file]. New York, NY: Audio Network Plc. Burns, J., Labbe, E., Williams, K., & McCall J. (1999). Perceived and physiological indicators of relaxation: As different as Mozart and Alice in Chains. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 24(3), Copley, J. (2008). Psychology of Heavy Metal Music: Effects on Mood, Aggression, Suicide, Drug Use and Intelligence. Retrieved from article.cfm/psychology_of_heavy_metal_music Husain, G., Thompson, W.F., & Schellenberg, E.G. (2002). Effects of Musical Tempo and Mode on Arousal, Mood, and Spatial Abilities. Music Perception, 20(2), Retrieved from Krumhansl, C.L. (1997). An exploratory study of musical emotions and psychophysiology. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 51, Kuperman, A. (2013). Effect of Music Tempo on Perceived Stress of a Task. Livewire Puzzles. (2004). Free Printable Word Searches. Retrieved from

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22 Trappe, H.J. (2010). Effects of music on cardiovascular system and cardiovascular health. Heart and Education in heart, 96(23), doi: /hrt Table 1 Mean State Anxiety Scores After Exposure to Different Tempos and Genres of Music High-Tempo Low-Tempo Genre n M(SD) 95% CI n M(SD) 95% CI Electronic (0.698) [1.923, 2.577] (0.551) [1.559, 2.075] Classical (0.762) [1.777, 2.490) (0.454) [1.142, 1.846]