A Meta-Analytic Examination of the Correlates of the Three Dimensions of Job Burnout

Transcription

1 Journal of Applied Psychology 1, Vol. SI. No., 1-1 Copyright 1 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 00I-0IO//S.00 A Meta-Analytic Examination of the Correlates of the Three Dimensions of Job Burnout Raymond T. Lee University of Manitoba Blake E. Ashforth Concordia University This meta-analysis examined how demand and resource correlates and behavioral and attitudinal correlates were related to each of the dimensions of job burnout. Both the demand and resource correlates were more strongly related to emotional exhaustion than to either depersonalization or personal accomplishment. Consistent with the conservation of resources theory of stress, emotional exhaustion was more strongly related to the demand correlates than to the resource correlates, suggesting that workers might have been sensitive to the possibility of resource loss. The burnout dimensions were differentially related to turnover intentions, organizational commitment, and control coping. Implications for research and the amelioration of burnout arc discussed. Over the past dozen years, the phenomenon of job burnout has been investigated in a variety of service occupations and settings. The construct has been linked to job stress and is thought to represent a unique response to frequent and intense client-patient interactions (Cordes&Dougherty, 1; Maslach, 18). According to Maslach (18), burnout consists of three dimensions: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization (felt distance from others), and diminished personal accomplishment. Recent efforts have been made toward understanding how various correlates are associated with each of the three dimensions (Burke & Richardsen, 1; Cordes& Dougherty, 1;Shirom, 18). The conservation of resources theory of stress (Hobfoll, 18; Hobfoll & Freedy, 1) provides a framework for understanding how such correlates are re- Raymond T. Lee, Department of Business Administration. University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada; Blake E. Ashforth, Department of Management, Concordia University, Montreal. Quebec, Canada. Portions of this study were presented at the 1th World Congress of Sociology: Sociology of Mental Health Working Group, Bielefeld, Germany, July 1. This study was funded in part by a 1-1 University of Manitoba, Faculty of Management research support grant. We are indebted to Monica Filz for assistance with the data collection and Stephen Hladkyj for assistance with the metaanalysis. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Raymond T. Lee, Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Management, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada RT N. Electronic mail may be sent via Bitnet to lee@ccm.umanitoba.ca. lated to burnout. The theory suggests that burnout occurs when certain valued resources are lost, are inadequate to meet demands, or do not yield the anticipated returns. The major demands of work include role ambiguity, role conflict, stressful events, heavy workload, and pressure. The major resources include social support from various sources; job enhancement opportunities, such as control, participation in decision making, and autonomy; and reinforcement contingencies (Burke & Richardsen, 1; Cordes& Dougherty, 1). The theory also states that certain behavioral and attitudinal outcomes arc likely to occur as a result of resource loss and burnout. The major outcomes include behavioral coping responses; turnover intentions; and erosion of organizational commitment, job involvement, and job satisfaction (Burke & Richardsen, 1; Kahili, 188). Using the conservation of resources framework, recent studies have investigated how certain demand and resource predictors are associated with each of the burnout dimensions (Lee & Ashforth, 1a; Leiter, 1;Leiter & Maslach, 188). Leiter and Maslach suggested that work demands and resources are potential sources of stress in the stress-strain-coping-self-evaluation process (Cummings & Cooper, 1; Lazarus & Folkman, 18). Emotional exhaustion as a form of strain is directly affected by these correlates, whereas depersonalization as a form of defensive coping and personal accomplishment as a form of self-evaluation are indirectly affected through emotional exhaustion. Leiter and Maslach's (188) model has received partial support. Lee and Ashforth (1a, 1b) found several of the correlates to be associated with emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, but the correlates 1

2 1 LEE AND ASHFORTH were only weakly associated with personal accomplishment. Moreover, Golembiewski's (18) model and Lee and Ashforth's (1b) data have raised some doubts regarding the sequential ordering among the burnout dimensions as posited by Leiter and Maslach. In light of these findings, Leiter {1) proposed a revised model in which the demand and resource correlates are posited to be differentially associated with the three dimensions. Specifically, the demands are posited to be more strongly related to emotional exhaustion, whereas the resources are posited to be more strongly related to either depersonalization or personal accomplishment. As Hobfoll and Freedy (1) stated, demands trigger strain in the form of physical and emotional exhaustion, whereas resources help to overcome the need for defensive coping and enhance one's self-efficacy. Leiter (11 b, 1) also posited that outcomes reflecting withdrawal tendencies (e.g., escape coping, low job involvement, and desire to quit) are more related to either emotional exhaustion or depersonalization, whereas outcomes reflecting positive self-efficacy (e.g., control coping and favorable work attitudes) are more related to personal accomplishment. Leiter's (1) revised model also posits how the burnout dimensions themselves may be interrelated (cf. Golembiewski, 18; Leiter, 18). Specifically, it is now believed that both emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment develop in parallel with (rather than following from) each other. Hence, both of these dimensions are posited to be "reactions to different aspects of the work environment that pose difficulties for human service workers" (Leiter, 1, p. ). Although the recent models are based in part on Hobfoil's (18) conservation of resources theory, the empirical evidence has been piecemeal and limited in scope. Thus, our meta-analysis assessed the associations between various correlates and each of the burnout dimensions. Only studies using the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI; Maslach & Jackson, 181, 18) were included because the scale is the most widely used operationalization of burnout. As a multidimensional measure, the MBI makes it possible to determine whether the symptoms of burnout are empirically distinct from each other and whether they are differentially associated with other variables. Therefore, our study provides a summary of the bivariate associations reported in the literature and has implications for the diagnosis and the amelioration of burnout. Literature Search Method We undertook both computer and manual searches for published articles that used the MBI. Using the key phrase "Maslach Burnout Inventory," the computer search scanned the abstract databases of clinical psychology, education, management, nursing, psychology, social work, and sociology from 18 to 1. The manual search scanned the reference lists of Burke and Richardsen (1), Cordes and Dougherty (1), Kahili (188), and Shirom (18) for published sources not found in the aforementioned abstracts. The search yielded sources, of which 8 provided sufficient information to conduct the meta-analysis. Of the remaining 1 sources, 11 examined a correlate unique to that study, and 8 did not provide information on reliability estimates, intercorrelations among the variables, or both. A letter requesting the missing information was sent to one of the authors of each of these 8 articles. This request yielded additional sources, for a total of 1. 1 The remaining and the 11 with unique correlates were excluded from the analysis. The 1 studies used in the meta-analysis covered correlates based on independent samples. The sample sizes ranged from to 0 (M = 18.0, SD = 1.08). Approximately 80% of the studies sampled human service providers (e.g., teachers, nurses, counselors, police officers, and social workers), whereas most of the remaining studies sampled supervisors and managers of such service providers. Because the symptoms of burnout appear to be fundamentally similar across hierarchical levels (Lee & Ashforth, 1a, 1b; Maslach & Jackson, 18), we did not differentiate the results on these bases. Each study was coded on whether the MBI used the frequency response format, the intensity response format, or both (see Maslach & Jackson, 181); the reliability estimates of all measures; and the correlations among the burnout dimensions and correlates. Mela-Analytic Procedure We followed the procedure given by Hunter and Schmidt (10). This procedure determines the extent to which correlation differences across studies can be attributed to certain statistical artifacts. It is only after such artifacts are taken into account that the corrected correlations between variables, as well as the variance in correlations across studies, can be estimated. First, we calculated the uncorrected weighted mean correlation (/ ) by using the zero-order correlations. Second, because reliability estimates might have varied widely across studies, we corrected each within-study zero-order correlation for measurement unreliability (Hunter & Schmidt, 10). Where reliability estimates were not reported, we substituted the weighted mean reliability (see Table 1) into the correction formula. Then, we calculated the individually corrected weighted mean correlation (r c ). Because so few studies reported scale ranges, means, and standard deviations, it was not possible to correct for range restrictions. Third, we computed the variance of the individually corrected weighted mean correlation after removing the variances 1 The correlations were provided upon request for the articles by Constable and Russell (18); Ross, Altmaier, and Russell (18); and Russell, Altmaier, and Van Velzen (18).

3 META-ANALYSIS OF JOB BURNOUT 1 Table 1 Weighted Mean Reliability Estimates oj All Variables Correlate k N «xx Correlate k N Rxx Job stressors Role ambiguity Role clarity Role conflict Role stress Stressful events Workload Work pressure Physical comfort Support Social support Supervisor support Coworker support Work friends Community bond Family resources Peer cohesion Team cohesion Job enhancement opportunities Autonomy Innovation Participation Skill utilization Task orientation" ,18, ,8 81 1,010,,0 1 1,1 1, Reinforcement contingencies Unmet expectations Contingent rewards Noncontingent rewards Contingent punishments Noncontingent punishments Frequency response format Emotional exhaustion Depersonalization Personal accomplishment Intensity response format Emotional exhaustion Depersonalization Personal accomplishment Behavioral and attitudinal outcomes Control coping Preventive coping Turnover intentions Organizational commitment Job involvement Job satisfaction Attitudes toward workplace climate 8 1 8,8,8,8 1, 1, 1, 0 1,1 1,8 1,0, Note, k = number of samples providing reliability information; N = total number of individuals in the k samples;? X x = weighted mean reliability estimate of each variable across the k samples. " Extent to which the work environment emphasizes efficiency and good planning. due to sampling error and measurement unreliability. We also computed the percentage of variance due to uncorrected artifacts. Fourth, we computed both the credibility and confidence intervals (Hunter & Schmidt, 10). The credibility interval was based on the standard deviation of the distribution of effect sizes after correcting for statistical artifacts and provided information on whether moderators were likely to be present. The confidence interval was based on the standard error of the mean effect size and provided information on the accuracy of the individually corrected weighted mean correlation estimate. Last, we conducted a test for the homogeneity of effect sizes across samples by using Hunter and Schmidt's (10) Q statistic. Because of disagreements over the appropriate ratio of artifacts to sample variance to infer that the effect sizes are homogeneous (cf. Hunter & Schmidt, 10), we used both the credibility interval and the Q statistic to detect moderators (Whitener, 10). Where the Q statistic could not be calculated, we used only the credibility interval. To determine if the effect sizes are homogeneous, Whitener (10, p. 1) recommended that the credibility interval be checked to see if it is "sufficiently large" or includes zero. However, it is unclear what qualifies as a sufficiently large interval. Thus, the effect sizes were considered homogeneous if the credibility interval did not include zero and the Q statistic was not significant. We computed the confidence interval for homogeneous effect sizes by using the formula provided by Whitener (10, p. 1). The effect sizes were considered heterogeneous if the credibility interval did include zero or if the Q statistic was significant (either case indicated that a moderator was probably operating). We computed the confidence interval for heterogeneous effect sizes by using the formula provided by Whitener (10, p. 1). Results Table 1 reports the number of studies, the total sample size, and the weighted mean reliability estimate for each variable. Tables - report the uncorrected weighted mean correlation, the individually corrected weighted mean correlation, the variance, the lower and upper range of the uncorrected weighted mean correlation based on the % confidence interval, and the results of the Q test for each correlate. Mela-Correlations Among the Burnout Dimensions Of the 1 studies included in the meta-analysis, used the frequency response format, 11 used the intensity A credibility interval that includes zero indicates the probability of a disordinal moderator, where the relationship between two variables is positive in certain samples and negative in others. However, a moderator is still possible even when the interval does not include zero but is large enough to suggest that the effect sizes are heterogeneous (Whitener, 10).

4 1 LEE AND ASHFORTH response format, and the remaining 1 used both, as Maslach and Jackson (181) did originally. Of the 1 studies that used both formats, provided intradimensional correlations between response formats. Across all three dimensions, the individually corrected weighted mean correlations were greater than.0, suggesting that the two formats are largely redundant and that only one is necessary (Maslach & Jackson, 18; Schaufeli, Enzmann, & Girault, 1). Table shows the meta-correlations among the three burnout dimensions. For the frequency response format, emotional exhaustion was strongly related to depersonalization (r c =.), whereas both dimensions were moderately negatively related to personal accomplishment (r c s =. for emotional exhaustion and. for depersonalization). The individually corrected weighted mean correlations among the three dimensions for the intensity response format were similar in magnitudes. Given the high correlations between the two response formats and that only a few studies used the intensity response format, all subsequent meta-analyses examined the three dimensions using only the frequency response format. Homogeneity of Effect Sizes Before examining the individually corrected weighted mean correlations between the correlates and the burnout dimensions, we determined the number of homogeneous effect sizes. For emotional exhaustion, the effect sizes were homogeneous for 1 of correlates; for depersonalization, the effect sizes were homogeneous for 1 of correlates; and for personal accomplishment, the effect sizes were horn ogeneous for 10 of correlates. Because of the small number of studies per variable, it was not possible to conduct any moderator analysis on correlates with heterogeneous effect sizes. Their individually corrected weighted mean correlations should thus be interpreted with caution, especially where both the credibility and confidence intervals include zero (Whitener, 10). Mela-Correlations Between the Correlates and the Burnout Dimensions For the demand correlates, Table shows that the individually corrected weighted mean correlations between emotional exhaustion and role conflict, role stress, stressful events, workload, and work pressure were all greater than or equal to.0. Table shows that the individually corrected weighted mean correlations between depersonalization and role ambiguity, role conflict, role stress, stressful events, and workload were all greater than or equal to.. Table shows that the individually corrected weighted mean correlations between personal accomplishment and the demand correlates were generally weak, with the highest being.. For the resource correlates, Table shows that the individually corrected weighted mean correlations between emotional exhaustion and social support, supervisor support, community bond, innovation, participation, unmet expectations, and noncontingent punishment were all greater than or equal to.01. Table shows that the individually corrected weighted mean correlations between Table Mela-Correlations Among the Job Burnout Dimensions % CI Burnout dimension-burnout dimension k N r r c VAR Lower Upper Frequency response format % due to artifacts Q statistic Emotional exhaustion-depersonalization Emotional exhaustion-personal accomplishment Depersonalization-personal accomplishment,8 8, 8, * Intensity response format Emotional exhaustion-depersonalization Emotional exhaustion-personal accomplishment Depersonalization-personal accomplishment 1, 1, **.0** 1.** Note. The boldface r^s indicate that the % credibility interval did not include zero. In cases where the corrected variances were less than zero, the Q statistic could not be calculated. When credibility intervals did not include zero and the Q statistic was not significant, the confidence interval (CI) for homogeneous effect sizes was constructed. Otherwise, the CI for heterogeneous effect sizes was constructed, k = number of studies; N = combined sample size; r = uncorrccted weighted mean correlation; r c = weighted mean correlation after correcting for within-study measurement unreliability; VAR = variance of ^ after correcting for sampling error and measurement unreliability; % due to artifacts = percentage of variance due to artifacts other than sampling error and measurement unreliability. V :.()]. **/><.001.

5 META-ANALYSIS OF JOB BURNOUT 1 Table Meta-Correlations With Emotional Exhaustion (Frequency) Correlate k N r r c VAR Lower % CI Upper % due to artifact Q statistic Job stressors (demands) Role ambiguity Role clarity Role conflict Role stress Stressful events Workload Work pressure Physical comfort Support (resources) Social support Supervisor support Coworker support Work friends Community bond Family resources Peer cohesion Team cohesion Job enhancement opportunities (resources) Innovation Autonomy Participation Skill utilization Task orientation' Reinforcement contingencies (resources) Unmet expectations Contingent rewards Noncontingent rewards Contingent punishments Noncontingent punishments Behavioral and attitudinal outcomes Control coping Turnover intentions Organizational commitment Job involvement Job satisfaction Attitudes toward workplace climate ,18, ,0 81 1,010,8, 1 1,1 1, 1,01 8 1,1,08 1,0, , , ** 1.* 1.8**..88**.**.8 1.*.0**.8**.*. 0.** ** ** 0.1* 11. 8** 8.8** Note. The boldface r c s indicate that the % credibility interval did not include zero. In cases where the corrected variances were less than zero, the Q statistic could not be calculated. When the credibility interval did not include zero and the Q statistic was not significant, the confidence interval (CI) for homogeneous effect sizes was constructed. Otherwise, the CI for heterogeneous effect sizes was constructed, k = number of studies; N = combined sample size; r = uncorrected weighted mean correlations; r c - weighted mean correlation after correcting for within-study measurement unreliability; VAR - variance of r c after correcting for sampling error and measurement unreliability; % due to artifacts = percentage of variance due to artifacts other than sampling error and measurement unreliability. " Extent to which the work environment emphasizes efficiency and good planning. depersonalization and community bond, team cohesion, and skill utilization were all greater than or equal to -.1. Table shows that the individually corrected weighted mean correlations between personal accomplishment and work friends, participation, and team orientation were greater than or equal to. 01. In summary, 1 of the demand and resource correlates had individually corrected weighted mean correlations greater than or equal to.01 with emotional exhaustion (Table ), 8 of the demand and resource correlates had individually corrected weighted mean correlations greater than or equal to ]. with depersonalization (Table ), and of the demand and resource correlates had individually corrected weighted mean correlations greater than or equal to. 01 with personal accomplishment (Table ). For the behavioral and attitudinal correlates, Tables - show that the burnout dimensions were differentially associated with three of the outcomes. Emotional exhaustion was positively associated with turnover intentions (r c =.) and negatively associated with organizational commitment (r c = -.), depersonalization was negatively associated with organizational commitment

6 18 LEE AND ASHFORTH Table Meta-Correlations With Depersonalization (Frequency) Correlate k A" / r e VAR Lower % Cl Upper % due to artifact Q statistic Job stressors (demands) Role ambiguity Role clarity Role conflict Role stress Stressful events Workload Work pressure Physical comfort Support (resources) Social support Supervisor support Coworker support Work friends Community bond Family resources Peer cohesion Team cohesion Job enhancement opportunities (resources) Innovation Autonomy Participation Skill utilization Task orientation" Reinforcement contingencies (resources) Unmet expectations Contingent rewards Noncontingent rewards Contingent punishments Noncontingent punishments Behavioral and attitudinal outcomes Control coping Preventive coping Turnover intentions Organizational commitment Job involvement Job satisfaction Attitudes toward workplace climate II 1 1,18, ,0 81 1,1,1,1 1 1,1 1, 1, 0.08, ". 10.8" 8.**.**.1.** 0.*.1** ** ** 1.1* ** 8.**.8** Note. The boldface r^ indicate that the % credibility interval did not include zero. In cases where the corrected variances were less than zero, the Q statistic could not be calculated. When the credibility interval did not include zero and the Q statistic was not significant, the confidence interval (CI) for homogeneous effect sizes was constructed. Otherwise, the CI for heterogeneous effect sizes was constructed, k = number of studies; N - combined sample size; r = uncorrected weighted mean correlation; r c = weighted mean correlation after correcting for within-study measurement unreliability; VAR = variance of r c after correcting for sampling error and measurement unreliability; % due to artifacts = percentage of variance due to artifacts other than sampling error and measurement unreliability. * Extent to which the work environment emphasizes efficiency and good planning. (r c = -.)andjobsatisfaction(r c =.), and personal accomplishment was positively associated with control coping (r c =.). Major Findings Discussion The meta-correlations found among the three burnout dimensions are similar to those reported in Maslach and Jackson's (18) manual and in other recent reviews (Cordes& Dougherty, 1; Schaufelietal., 1). The results are also consistent with Leiter's f 1) belief that personal accomplishment develops largely independently of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. The patterns of associations between the demand and resource correlates and the three dimensions appear to be consistent with the conservation of resources explanation of burnout (Hobfoll & Freedy, 1; Leiter, 1). Five of the eight demand correlates were strongly (r c s >.0) associated with emotional exhaustion, whereas only

7 META-ANALYSIS OF JOB BURNOUT 1 Table Meta-Correlations With Personal Accomplishment (Frequency) Correlate k N r r c VAR Lower % CI Upper % due to artifact Q statistic Job stressors (demands) Role ambiguity Role clarity Role conflict Role stress Stressful events Workload Work pressure Physical comfort Support (resources) Social support Supervisor support Coworker support Work friends Community bond Family resources Peer cohesion Team cohesion Job enhancement opportunities (resources) Innovation Autonomy Participation Skill utilization Task orientation 8 Reinforcement contingencies (resources) Unmet expectations Contingent rewards Noncontingent rewards Contingent punishments Noncontingent punishments Behavioral and attitudinal outcomes Control coping Turnover intentions Organizational commitment Job involvement Job satisfaction Attitudes toward workplace climate } y 1 ] 1,11, ,1 81 1,1,8,1 1 1,1 1, 1, 8,08, **.10** 1.1** 1.0** 11.88** 8.0** ** 18.** 1.**..1**.**.18** 1.18".** 0.** **.** 1.1** Note. The boldface r cs indicate that the % credibility interval did not include zero. In cases where the corrected variances were less than zero, the Q statistic could not be calculated. When the credibility interval did not include zero and the Q statistic was not significant, the confidence interval (CI) for homogeneous effect sizes was constructed. Otherwise, the CI for heterogeneous effect sizes was constructed, k = number of studies; A' = combined sample size; r = uncorrectcd weighted mean correlation; r c = weighted mean correlation after correcting for within-study measurement unreliability; VAR = variance of r c after correcting for sampling error and measurement unreliability; % due to artifacts = percentage of variance due to artifacts other than sampling error and measurement unreliability. ' Extent to which the work environment emphasizes efficiency and good planning. "ps.ooi. unmet expectations as a resource correlate had the same magnitude of association with emotional exhaustion (r c =.). Consistent with the primacy of resource loss argument made by Hobfoll and Freedy, the results suggest that individuals may be more sensitive to demands placed on them than to the resources received. Work demands are generally perceived to be losses because meeting such demands requires the investment of valued resources, viewed as gains (Hobfoll & Freedy, 1). According to prospect theory, to the extent that individuals overweigh the consequences of losses, the resources expended to prevent further loss are greater than the threat of losses presented by the demands (Tversky & Kahneman, 181). This overcompensation may partly explain why service workers seem to be more adversely Expectations can be perceived as either resources or demands, depending on the degree to which they are met. Unmet expectations would likely be viewed as demands because they threaten one's work adjustment, whereas met expectations would likely be viewed as resources because they confirm or support one's adjustment.

8 10 LEE AND ASHFORTH affected by the stressors. For many service providers, the key decision is the amount of one or more resources they need to invest to meet the demands and to protect themselves from further resource depletion. Strain occurs when the workers feel they no longer have sufficient emotional resources to handle the interpersonal stressors (cf. Hobfoil, 18; Maslach, 18). Instead, many adopt the defensive strategy of withdrawal (rather than engagement) through depersonalization (Lee & Ashforth, 1a). Thus, it is not surprising to find that depersonalization was also strongly associated with role stress (r c =.) and stressful events (r c =.0). A surprising finding was the weak associations (i.e., r c s < ±.0) between personal accomplishment and most of the resource correlates. The two exceptions were work friends (r c =.) and participation (r c =.0). To the extent that work acquaintances provide individuals with a sense of competence through support, self-efficacy and self-appraisal may be heightened (Jayaratne & Chess, 18). Similarly, to the extent that participation leads to greater felt mastery and control (i.e., empowerment) over the work environment, self-efficacy and self-appraisal may also be enhanced. Although gains in resources are viewed by most workers as less salient than the prevention of loss, gains are not inconsequential (Hobfoll & Freedy, 1). Resources may directly compensate for certain losses, but they may also indirectly help workers cope with work demands. For example, with weak social support, interpersonal stressors will likely lead to emotional strain, but with strong support, their relationship will likely be attenuated (Jayaratne & Chess, 18; Russell, Altmaier, & Van Velzen, 18). This proposition is consistent with interactionist accounts of organizational behavior (see Mitchell & James, 18). Consistent with Leiter's (1) model, our findings reveal that the three dimensions were differentially associated with several of the behavioral and atliludinal correlates. Emotional exhaustion and depersonalization were strongly associated with turnover intentions and organizational commitment but were weakly associated with control coping. As a caveat, it is unclear whether the weak associations reflect the underuse of such a coping behavior or its lack of effectiveness and subsequent abandonment. In any case, the lack of an effective coping response might have served to reinforce subsequent feelings of helplessness and futility (Lee & Ashforth, 1a). In contrast, personal accomplishment was strongly related to control coping, suggesting that a problem-focused response and a positive self-appraisal may be mutually reinforcing (Lazarus &Folkman, 18;cf. Leiter, 11b). Our findings suggest that outcomes that stem from emotional exhaustion and reflect the desire to withdraw may be offset by outcomes that stem from personal accomplishment and reflect the desire to seek control. Whichever response (either withdrawing or seeking control) predominates may thus depend on the relative strengths of emotional exhaustion and personal accomplishment as each develops independently over time (Lee & Ashforth, 1a; Leiter, 1). Study Limitations One limitation is that the meta-correlations show only the strength of the relations among the burnout dimensions and by no means deal with the controversy regarding their sequential ordering (Golembiewski, 18; Leiter, 18). The arguments over the correct sequence are based on circumstantial evidence of how strongly each dimension is related to certain antecedent and outcome variables (Cordes & Dougherty, 1; e.g., see Lee & Ashforth, 1b). A second limitation is that the strong association found between emotional exhaustion and five of the demand stressors may be partly attributed to a measurement artifact. Three of Maslach and Jackson's (181, 18) emotional exhaustion scale items (i.e., "I feel emotionally drained from my work," "Working with people directly puts too much stress on me," and "Working with people all day is really a strain for me") are direct measures of individual stress reactions. These items correspond closely to items that tap perceived stress found in frequently used scales of role overload, role conflict, role ambiguity, stressful events, and work pressure. A third limitation is that only certain demands and resources were examined here. The fact that emotional exhaustion was strongly associated with several of the correlates does not necessarily imply the absence of other correlates that may be more strongly associated with the other two dimensions. Two sets of correlates not examined here are demographic (e.g., sex, age, and education) and dispositional attributes (e.g., Type A personality, psychological hardiness, and locus of control). Although these attributes have been linked to burnout (Cordes & Dougherty, 1; Mclntyre, 18;Nowack, 18), their potential as moderators requires further clarification and investigation. Implications for Future Research Although the demand and resource correlates of job burnout have been the focus of much attention, their links to stress-coping and adjustment require further study. According to the primacy of loss hypothesis, individuals are more sensitive to demands and thus overcompensate in the amount of resources expended to prevent further loss (Hobfoll & Freedy, 1). To the extent that

9 META-ANALYS1S OF JOB BURNOUT 11 burnout develops because of this overcompensation, two questions are worth investigating: (a) To what extent can individuals deal with or even overcome burnout by reappraising their demands as potential gains (challenges) rather than certain losses (obstacles; Lazarus & Folkman, 18; Tversky & Kahneman, 181) and (b) if demands can indeed be reframed as potential gains, how can resources be used to change the way stressors are appraised? For example, with the right kind of supervisory support, workers may come to perceive ambiguous role expectations as opportunities to carry out their own initiatives (potential gains) rather than as restrictions on their actions (certain losses). A broader question that needs to be addressed is the extent to which the burnout phenomenon is generalizable to occupations other than human services (Shirom, 18). Perhaps the most distinguishing aspect of burnout is not so much its psychological and behavioral symptoms but rather the demands and the resources perceived to be the most salient in service settings (cf. Cordes & Dougherty, 1). Service providers may work in situations with demands and resources that are different from those experienced by, say, production workers in manufacturing settings. If true, this suggests that stress researchers should identify and include demands and resources perceived by their study participants to be the most relevant for their work context (Maslach, 18). Moreover, a comparison of the perceived importance of a common core of demands and resources between service and nonservice workers may reveal how and why stressful situations are dealt with differently between occupations. Last, longitudinal designs may show that how workers handle burnout is guided by the type and the frequency of feedback on the usefulness of their initial coping behaviors (Leiter, 11 b). This longitudinal approach suggests several forms of reciprocal relationships involving burnout and adjustment responses (cf. Cummings & Cooper, 1). Multiple data points over time may thus help determine the kinds of feedback required to ameliorate or prevent burnout. Such longitudinal data collection should lead to a better understanding of how burnout develops and contribute to the broader research on stress-coping. References References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the meta-analysis. *Anderson, M. B. G., & Iwanicki, E. F. (18). Teacher motivation and its relationship to burnout. Educational Administration Quarterly, 0, *Barrick, R. K. (18). Burnout and job satisfaction of vocational supervisors. Journal of Agricultural Education, 0, - 1. Bloom, K. D., Buhrke, R. 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