8/17/2012. Social Psychology: An Empirical Science. Social Psychology: An Empirical Science. Chapter 2

Size: px

Start display at page:

Download "8/17/2012. Social Psychology: An Empirical Science. Social Psychology: An Empirical Science. Chapter 2"

Willis Chambers
6 years ago
Views:

Chapter 2 Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research Slides prepared by JoNell

West Virginia University Social Psychology: An Empirical Science Fundamental Principle

Results of some experiments may seem obvious Why?

1 Chapter 2 Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research Slides prepared by JoNell Strough, Ph.D. & Philip Lemaster, M.A. West Virginia University Social Psychology: An Empirical Science Fundamental Principle Social influence can be studied scientifically Social Psychology: An Empirical Science Results of some experiments may seem obvious Why? Familiarity with the subject matter Social influence Social behavior Hindsight bias Hindsight Bias Tendency to exaggerate prediction of an outcome after knowing that it occurred. 1

2 In October of 2011, a 2-year-old girl was struck by two vans in a row. A dozen people walked or rode past her. Why didn t they stop to help? Source: Kyodo/Newscom Scientific Method Like other scientists, social psychologists Develop theories Derive hypotheses from theory Test hypotheses Based on the results, revise theory Formulate and test new hypotheses Formulating Hypotheses Previous theories and research Science is cumulative Dissatisfaction with behaviorism (Festinger) Personal observation Kitty Genovese (Latané and Darley) 2

3 Three Methods Observational Goal: Description Correlational Goal: Prediction Experimental Goal: Answer causal questions Observational Method Researcher observes people and systematically records measurements of impressions of their behavior. Used to describe behavior Observational Method Ethnography Description from an insider s point of view No preconceceived notions Used by cultural anthropologists Used by social psychologists to understand different cultures 3

4 Observational Method Archival Analysis Researcher examines accumulated documents (archives) E.g., diaries, magazines, newspapers Observational Method Example Research Question How much aggression do children exhibit during school recesses? Observational Method Example Method Behaviors are concretely defined before the observation begins Observer systematically: looks for behaviors records behaviors Accuracy of observer is assessed Interjudge reliability 4

5 Interjudge Reliability Do you see what I see? Important to establish reliability when observation is used Interjudge Reliability The level of agreement between two or more people who independently observe and code a set of data. Limits of Observational Method Certain behaviors difficult to observe Occur rarely In private Archival analysis Original may not have all information researchers need Does not allow prediction and explanation Limited to description Correlational Method Two or more variables are systematically measured and the relation between them is assessed. Use to predict behavior 5

6 Example Research Question Using Correlational Method What is the relation between the amount of violent television children watch and how aggressive they are? Positive Correlation INCREASES in the value of one variable are associated with INCREASES in the value of the other variable Aggression and viewing violent media are positively correlated Children who are aggressive tend to watch more violent television Height and weight are positively correlated Taller people tend to weigh more (r =.47) Negative Correlation INCREASES in the value of one variable are associated with DECREASES in the value of the other variable Vaccination rate correlates negatively with disease rate More vaccinations, less disease 6

The Correlation Coefficient Correlation coefficients range from 1.00 to +1.00 + 1.00 perfectly correlated in a positive direction 0 means that two variables are not correlated 1.

7 The Correlation Coefficient Correlation coefficients range from 1.00 to perfectly correlated in a positive direction 0 means that two variables are not correlated 1.00 perfectly correlated in a negative direction Figure 2.1 The Correlation Coefficient The diagrams below show three possible correlations in a hypothetical study of watching violence on television and aggressive behavior in children. The diagram at the left shows a strong positive correlation: The more television children watched, the more aggressive they were. The diagram in the middle shows no correlation: The amount of television children watched is not related to how aggressive they were. The diagram at the right shows a strong negative correlation: The more television children watched, the less aggressive they were. The Correlational Method Surveys Representative sample of people asked about attitudes or behavior Correlations computed using responses to questions 7

8 Using Surveys Random Selection A way of ensuring that a sample of people is representative of a population by giving everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected for the sample Surveys Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages Investigate relations between variables difficult to observe Sexual behavior & Knowledge of HIV Sample representative segments of population Disadvantage People may not know the answer but they think they do! Limits of the Correlational Method Correlation causation! Correlational method tells us only that two variables are related Social psychology s goal Identify causes of social behavior Be able to say that A causes B, not just that A is correlated with B 8

A study conducted in the early 1990s found a correlation between the type of birth control women used and their likelihood of getting a sexually transmitted disease (STD).

9 A study conducted in the early 1990s found a correlation between the type of birth control women used and their likelihood of getting a sexually transmitted disease (STD). Those whose partners used condoms were more likely to have an STD than were women who used other forms of birth control. Does this mean that the use of condoms caused the increase in STDs? Not necessarily see the text for alternative explanations of this research finding. Source: Michael Newman/ PhotoEdit Correlation Causation Three possible causal relations when a correlation is found (e.g., TV violence and aggression are correlated) 1. TV violence causes viewer to become violent 2. Aggressive kids are more likely to watch violent TV 3. Correlation is caused by something else (e.g., parental neglect) The Experimental Method Researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions, conditions are identical except for the independent variable (the one thought to have a causal effect on people s responses). Use to answer causal questions 9

10 Independent Variable (IV) The IV is what researchers manipulate to see if it has a causal effect (e.g., type of TV show children watch). Dependent Variable (DV) The DV is what researchers measure to see if it is affected e.g., measure children s aggression (DV) after they watch television (IV) that is either violent on nonviolent Research Methods Video Click on the screenshot to review the differences between correlational and experimental research. Back to Directory 10

11 IV and DV Example using Latané and Darley (1970) IV Number of bystanders DV Helping behavior Figure 2.2 Independent and Dependent Variables in experimental research Researchers vary the independent variable (e.g., the number of bystanders people think are present) and observe what effect that has on the dependent variable (e.g., whether people help). Internal Validity of Experiments Internal Validity Making sure that nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable 11

12 Increasing Internal Validity Control extraneous variables Randomly assign people to experimental conditions Random Assignment Ensure all participants have equal chance of being in any experimental condition This powerful technique is the most important part of the experimental method. Random Assignment Distributes differences in participants (e.g., personalities, backgrounds) evenly across conditions Knowledge of epilepsy in Latané and Darley study 12

13 Probability Level (p-value) A number calculated with statistical techniques Indicates likelihood results of experiment occurred by chance instead of the IV(s) Probability Level (p-value) The convention in science is to consider results significant when Probability is less than 5 in 100 that the results might be due to chance factors and not the IV p<.05 Limits of Experimental Method Experimental situations can be Artificial Distant from real life Tradeoff with increasing control over the situation to make it similar for all participants 13

A good deal of social psychological research takes place in laboratory settings. How do social psychologists generalize from the findings of these studies to life outside the laboratory?

14 A good deal of social psychological research takes place in laboratory settings. How do social psychologists generalize from the findings of these studies to life outside the laboratory? Source: Lewis J. Merrim/Photo Researchers, Inc. External Validity in Experiments External Validity The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people. Two Kinds of External Validity Generalizability across 1.Situations the extent to which we can generalize from the experimental situation to real-life situations 2.People the extent to which we can generalize from the people who participated in the experiment to people in general 14

15 Generalizability Across Situations Mundane Realism The extent to which an experiment is similar to real-life situations Psychological Realism The extent to which psychological processes triggered by experiment are similar to psychological processes in real life Generalizability Across Situations When people feel involved in a real event, the psychological realism is increased Cover story A description of the purpose of a study, given to participants, that is different from its true purpose, used to maintain psychological realism. Generalizability Across People Random selection of participants from population Impractical and expensive for most social psychology experiments Address by studying basic, fundamental psychological processes that may be universal 15

Social psychologists are interested in how generalizable their findings are to different kinds of people. What are the challenges in doing so? What approaches do social psychologists take?

16 Social psychologists are interested in how generalizable their findings are to different kinds of people. What are the challenges in doing so? What approaches do social psychologists take? Source: Megapress/Alamy Generalizability Across People To investigate generalizability and universality of processes, replication is used Replication Repeating a study, often with different subject populations or in different settings. Generalizability Across People What if different experiments yield different results? Meta-Analysis A statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable. 16

Cross-Cultural Research Cross-Cultural Research Research conducted with members of different cultures, to see whether the psychological processes of interest are present in both cultures or whether

17 Cross-Cultural Research Cross-Cultural Research Research conducted with members of different cultures, to see whether the psychological processes of interest are present in both cultures or whether they are specific to the culture in which people were raised. Cross-Cultural Research Human Emotions Universality Across cultures, emotion expression is similar Cultural influences People best recognize emotions expressed by members of own cultural group Source: Humayoun Shiab/EPA/Newscom Issues in Cross-Cultural Research Researchers must: Guard against imposing their own cultural viewpoints onto an unfamiliar culture Ensure that IV & DV are understood in the same way in different cultures 17

18 Improving External Validity Use of field experiments: Study behavior outside of the lab, in natural setting Same design as a laboratory experiment, but use real-life setting (sidewalk, store, street, campus) Participants unaware they are in an experiment External validity is high Takes place in the real world Basic Dilemma of the Social Psychologist Trade-off between internal and external validity By increasing internal validity, some external validity (generalizability) is sacrificed By increasing external validity (e.g., a field experiment), control over the setting is lost and internal validity is sacrificed Addressing the Basic Dilemma First, maximize internal validity to identify cause using laboratory experiments Then, establish external validity using replication in: Different settings Different populations 18

Addressing the Basic Dilemma Maximize external validity with field studies Do both field studies and experiments Replication maximizes internal and external validity Basic Versus Applied Research

19 Addressing the Basic Dilemma Maximize external validity with field studies Do both field studies and experiments Replication maximizes internal and external validity Basic Versus Applied Research Basic Research Experiments Answer basic questions about human behavior Applied Studies Directed toward solving social problems Social psychologists are studying the brain and its relation to behavior. They use technologies such as electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fmri). Source: Mark Harmel/Photo Researchers, Inc. 19

20 Ethical Issues in Social Psychology To have internal and external validity, experiments must be well controlled, to resemble the real world as much as possible Experiments must avoid causing participants undue and unnecessary stress, discomfort, unpleasantness Ethical dilemmas can occur when these two goals conflict Ethical Issues in Social Psychology Informed Consent Agreement to participate in an experiment, granted in full awareness of the nature of the experiment, which has been explained in advance. Ethical Issues in Social Psychology In many experiments, this is feasible and where it is feasible, informed consent is obtained Sometimes informed consent is not possible 20

21 Ethical Issues in Social Psychology Deception Misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire. Not all research in social psychology involves deception! Guidelines for Ethical Research Submit to Institutional Review Board Which approves studies in advance Informed consent obtained Debrief participants afterwards about the study purpose and procedures do this especially important if deception is involved Impact of Deception on Participants People do not object to mild discomfort and deception Most participants in deception experiments report they learn and enjoy deception experiments more than non-deception experiments 21

22 Summary and Review Methods Observational Correlational Experimental Advantages and disadvantages of different methods Internal and External Validity Basic versus Applied Research Ethics 22

Chapter 2 Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research

Chapter 2 Methodology: How Social Psychologists Do Research Methodology Social Psychology: An Empirical Science Empirical research allows us to test the validity of personal observations and folk wisdom.