Bibliography. What You Don t Know: The Science of Unconscious Bias and What To Do About It in the Search and Recruitment Process

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1 Bibliography What You Don t Know: The Science of Unconscious Bias and What To Do About It in the Search and Recruitment Process Association of American Medical Colleges

2 Bauer, C.C. & Baltes, B.B. (2002). Reducing the effects of gender stereotypes on performance evaluations. Sex Roles, 47, The purpose of this research was to extend previous work on gender bias in performance evaluation. Specifically, we examined whether a structured free recall intervention could decrease the influence of traditional gender-stereotypes on the performance evaluations of women. Two hundred forty-seven college students provided performance ratings for vignettes that described the performance of male or female college professors. Results indicated that without the intervention, raters who have traditional stereotypes evaluated women less accurately & more negatively. Conversely, the structured free recall intervention successfully eliminated these effects. The usefulness of the structured free recall intervention as a tool for decreasing the influence of gender stereotypes on performance ratings is discussed. [Abstract from author]. Bertrand, M. & Mullainathan, S. (2004). Are Emily and Greg more employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A field experiment on labor market discrimination. American Economic Review, 94, We perform a field experiment to measure racial discrimination in the labor market. We respond with fictitious resumes to help-wanted ads in Boston and Chicago newspapers. To manipulate perception of race, each resume is randomly assigned either a very African American sounding name or a very White sounding name. The results show significant discrimination against African-American names: White names receive 50 percent more callbacks for interviews. We also find that race affects the benefits of a better resume. For White names, a higher quality resume elicits 30 percent more callbacks whereas for African Americans, it elicits a far smaller increase. Applicants living in better neighborhoods receive more callbacks but, interestingly, this effect does not differ by race. The amount of discrimination is uniform across occupations and industries. Federal contractors and employers who list Equal Opportunity Employer in their ad discriminate as much as other employers. We find little evidence that our results are driven by employers inferring something other than race, such as social class, from the names. These results suggest that racial discrimination is still a prominent feature of the labor market. [Abstract from author]. Biernat, M. & Manis, M. (1994). Shifting standards and stereotype-based judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(1), Four studies tested a model of stereotype-based shifts in judgment standards developed by M. Biernat, M. Manis, and T. E. Nelson (1991). The model suggests that subjective judgments of target persons from different social groups may fail to reveal the stereotyped expectations of judges, because they invite the use of different evaluative standards; more "objective" or common rule indicators reduce such standard shifts. The stereotypes that men are more competent than women, women are more verbally able than men, Whites are more verbally able than Blacks, and Blacks are more athletic than Whites were successfully used to demonstrate the shifting standards phenomenon. Several individual-difference measures were also effective in predicting differential susceptibility to standard shifts, and direct evidence was provided that differing comparison standards account for substantial differences in target ratings.[abstract from author]. Blair, I.V. & Banaji, M.R. (1996). Automatic and controlled processes in stereotype priming. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,70(6), The experiments in this article were conducted to observe the automatic activation of gender stereotypes and to assess theoretically specified conditions under which such stereotype priming may be moderated. Across 4 experiments, 3 patterns of data were observed: (a) evidence of stereotype priming under baseline conditions of intention and high cognitive constraints, (b) significant reduction of stereotype priming when a counterstereotype intention was formed even though cognitive constraints were high, and (c) complete reversal of stereotype priming when a counterstereotype intention was formed and cognitive constraints were low. These data support proposals that stereotypes may be automatically activated as well as proposals that perceivers can control and even eliminate such effects. [Abstract from author.] 2010 AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 1

3 Blair, I.V., Ma, J.E., & Lenton, A.P. (2001). Imagining stereotypes away: The moderation of implicit stereotypes through mental imagery. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(5), Research on implicit stereotypes has raised important questions about an individual's ability to moderate and control stereotypic responses. With few strategies shown to be effective in moderating implicit effects, the present research investigates a new strategy based on focused mental imagery. Across 5 experiments, participants who engaged in counterstereotypic mental imagery produced substantially weaker implicit stereotypes compared with participants who engaged in neutral, stereotypic, or no mental imagery. This reduction was demonstrated with a variety of measures, eliminating explanations based on response suppression or shifts in response criterion. Instead, the results suggest that implicit stereotypes are malleable, and that controlled processes, such as mental imagery, may influence the stereotyping process at its early as well as later stages. [Abstract from author]. Butler, D. & Geis, F.L. (1990). Nonverbal affect responses to male and female leaders: Implications for leadership evaluations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(1), It was hypothesized that female leaders would elicit more negative nonverbal affect responses from other group members than male leaders offering the same initiatives. Male and female subjects participated in 4-person discussions in which male or female confederates assumed leadership. During the discussion subjects' nonverbal affect responses to the confederates were coded from behind one-way mirrors. Female leaders received more negative affect responses and fewer positive responses than men offering the same suggestions and arguments. Female leaders received more negative than positive responses, in contrast to men, who received at least as many positive as negative responses. The data demonstrate a concrete social mechanism known to cause devaluation of leadership, and thus support a more social interpretation of female leadership evaluations, in contrast to previous interpretations based on private perceptual bias. [Abstract from author]. Correll, S.J., Bernard, S. & Paik, I. (2007). Getting a job: Is there a motherhood penalty?. American Journal of Sociology, 112(5), Survey research finds that mothers suffer a substantial wage penalty, although the causal mechanism producing it remains elusive. The authors employed a laboratory experiment to evaluate the hypothesis that status-based discrimination plays an important role and an audit study of actual employers to assess its real-world implications. In both studies, participants evaluated application materials for a pair of samegender equally qualified job candidates who differed on parental status. The laboratory experiment found that mothers were penalized on a host of measures, including perceived competence and recommended starting salary. Men were not penalized for, and sometimes benefited from, being a parent. The audit study showed that actual employers discriminate against mothers, but not against fathers. [Abstract from author]. Cuddy, A. J. C., Fiske, S. T., & Glick, P. (2004). When professionals become mothers, warmth doesn t cut the ice. Journal of Social Issues, 60, Working moms risk being reduced to one of two subtypes: homemakers viewed as warm but incompetent, or female professionals characterized as competent but cold. The current study (N = 122 college students) presents four important findings. First, when working women become mothers, they trade perceived competence for perceived warmth. Second, working men don t make this trade; when they become fathers, they gain perceived warmth and maintain perceived competence. Third, people report less interest in hiring, promoting, and educating working moms relative to working dads and childless employees. Finally, competence ratings predict interest in hiring, promoting, and educating workers. Thus, working moms gain in perceived warmth does not help them, but their loss in perceived competence does hurt them. [Abstract from author] AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 2

4 Davison, H. K. & Burke, M.J. (2000). Sex discrimination in simulated employment contexts: A metaanalytic investigation. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 56(2), This study meta-analytically tested hypotheses concerning factors that affect sex discrimination in simulated employment contexts. These hypotheses, derived from the social psychological literature on stereotyping, predicted that salience of applicant sex, job sex-type, sex of rater, and amount of jobrelevant information would affect discrimination against female and male applicants. Generally, the hypotheses concerning job sex-type and job-relevant information were supported. Female and male applicants received lower ratings when being considered for an opposite-sex-type job, and the difference between ratings of males and females decreased as more job-relevant information was provided. However, ratings of males and females did not differ as hypothesized in regard to salience of sex and rater sex. The research and practice implications of these results are discussed. [Abstract from author]. Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L.L. (2003). The female leadership advantage: An evaluation of the evidence. The Leadership Quarterly, 14, Journalists and authors of trade books increasingly assert a female advantage in leadership, whereby women are more likely than men to lead in a style that is effective under contemporary conditions. Contrasting our analysis of these claims with Vecchio s [Leadersh. Q. 13 (2002) 643] analysis, we show that women have some advantages in typical leadership style but suffer some disadvantages from prejudicial evaluations of their competence as leaders, especially in masculine organizational contexts. Nonetheless, more women are rising into leadership roles at all levels, including elite executive roles. We suggest reasons for this rise and argue that organizations can capture the symbols of progressive social change and modernity by appointments of women in key positions. [Abstract from author]. Eagly, A.H., & Karau, S.J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109(3), A role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders proposes that perceived incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles leads to 2 forms of prejudice: (a) perceiving women less favorably than men as potential occupants of leadership roles and (b) evaluating behavior that fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman. One consequence is that attitudes are less positive toward female than male leaders and potential leaders. Other consequences are that it is more difficult for women to become leaders and to achieve success in leadership roles. Evidence from varied research paradigms substantiates that these consequences occur, especially in situations that heighten perceptions of incongruity between the female gender role and leadership roles. [Abstract from author]. Ellemers, N., van den Heuvel, H., de Gilder, D., Maass, A., & Bonvini A. (2004). The underrepresentation of women in science: Differential commitment or the queen bee syndrome?. The British Journal of Social Psychology, 43, We examined possible explanations for the underrepresentation of women among university faculty, in two different national contexts. In the Netherlands, a sample of doctoral students (N = 132) revealed no gender differences in work commitment or work satisfaction. Faculty members in the same university (N = 179), however, perceived female students to be less committed to their work and female faculty endorsed these gender-stereotypical perceptions most strongly. A second study, in Italy, replicated and extended these findings. Again, no gender differences were obtained in the self-descriptions of male and female doctoral students (N = 80), while especially the female faculty (N = 93) perceived female students as less committed to their work than male students. Additional measures supported an explanation in social identity terms, according to which individual upward mobility (i.e. of female faculty) implies distancing the self from the group stereotype which not only involves perceiving the self as a nonprototypical group member, but may also elicit stereotypical views of other in-group members. [Abstract from author] AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 3

5 Fiske, S.T. & Taylor, S.E. (1991). Social cognition (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill Book Company. This text by Susan Fiske and Shelley Taylor has been the standard resource for scholars and students interested in the fullest understanding of the areas of social cognition. Now in its thoroughly revised second edition, Social Cognition goes even further in organizing and critically evaluating the theories, evidence, and practical applications centered around the basic issue of how people make sense of their social environment. By combining new developments in cognitive psychology on attention, memory, and inference, with those emerging from the study of attitudes, affect, and motivation, Fiske and Taylor give us the state of the art manual for appreciating that aspect of human nature which focuses on how people think about themselves and about others. [From the foreword]. Foschi, M. (2000). Double standards for competence: Theory and research. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, This article reviews theory and research on double standards, namely, the use of different requirements for the inference of possession of an attribute, depending on the individuals being assessed. The article focuses on double standards for competence in task groups and begins by examining how status characteristics (e.g. gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic class) become a basis for stricter standards for the lower status person. I also discuss other bases for this practice (e.g. personality characteristics, allocated rewards, sentiments of either like or dislike). Next, I describe double standards in the inference of other types of valued attributes (e.g. beauty, morality, mental health) and examine the relationship between these practices and competence double standards. The article concludes with a discussion of "reverse" double standards for competence, namely, the practice of applying more lenient ability standards to lower status individuals. [Abstract from author]. Foschi, M. (1996). Double standards in the evaluation of men and women. Social Psychology Quarterly, 59(3), This article presents the results from two expectation-states studies on gender and double standards for task competence. The emergence of such standards under several experimental conditions is investigated. In both studies, men and women, participating in opposite-sex dyads, worked first individually and then as a team in solving a perceptual task. As predicted, results from Experiment 1 show that although subjects of both sexes achieved equal levels of performance, women were held to a stricter standard of competence than men. This difference was more pronounced when the referent of the standard was the partner rather than self. Experiment 2 investigates the extent to which the double standard is affected by level of accountability for one's assessments. Results show a significant difference by sex of referent of standard when accountability was low, but not when it was increased. In both studies, measures of perceived competence in self and in partner reflected reported standards, as predicted. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed. [Abstract from author]. Foschi, M., Lai, L., & Sigerson, K. (1994). Gender and double standards in the assessment of job applicants. Social Psychology Quarterly, 57(4), This study tests hypotheses on the use of gender-based double standards in the assessment of task competence. The design involves the examination of files of applicants for engineering jobs, and recreates several features of a hiring decision. The critical choice to be made by each subject was between a male and a female applicant with average but slightly different academic records. In one experimental condition the man held the better record; in the other, the situation was reversed. Results for male subjects show that when the male candidate was the better performer, he was chosen more often, and was considered more competent and more suitable, than when the female candidate was in that position. Female subjects, on the other hand, did not show any differences regarding sex of applicant. This sex of subject effect is examined in detail. A discussion of the paper s theoretical and methodological contributions to the study of ability evaluation is also included. [Abstract from author] AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 4

6 Galinsky, A. D. & Moskowitz, G.B. (2000). Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(4), Using 3 experiments, the authors explored the role of perspective-taking in debiasing social thought. In the 1st 2 experiments, perspective-taking was contrasted with stereotype suppression as a possible strategy for achieving stereotype control. In Experiment 1, perspective-taking decreased stereotypic biases on both a conscious and a nonconscious task. In Experiment 2, perspective-taking led to both decreased stereotyping and increased overlap between representations of the self and representations of the elderly, suggesting activation and application of the self-concept in judgments of the elderly. In Experiment 3, perspective-taking reduced evidence of in-group bias in the minimal group paradigm by increasing evaluations of the out-group. The role of self-other overlap in producing prosocial outcomes and the separation of the conscious, explicit effects from the nonconscious, implicit effects of perspectivetaking are discussed. [Abstract from author]. Goldin, C. & Rouse, C. (2000). Orchestrating impartiality: The impact of blind auditions on female musicians. The American Economic Review, 90(4), A change in the audition procedures of symphony orchestras-adoption of "blind" auditions with a "screen" to conceal the candidate's identity from the jury--provides a test for sex-biased hiring. Using data from actual auditions, in an individual fixed-effects framework, we fjnd that the screen increases the probability a woman will be advanced and hired. Although some of our estimates have large standard errors and there is one persistent effect in the opposite direction, the weight of the evidence suggests that the blind audition procedure fostered impartiality in hiring and increased the proportion women in symphony orchestras. [Abstract from author]. Gundersen, D. E., Tinsley, D.B., & Terpstra, D.E. (1996). Empirical assessment of impression management biases: The potential for performance appraisal error. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 11, This experimental study used senior university students in a business curriculum to explore the role of impression management as a bias in a performance appraisal setting. Subordinate performance and the gender of both raters and ratees were also included as factors in the study. As expected, findings show that performance is the primary determinant of appraisal scores as a main effect where all evaluation measures were significant at the p <.001 level. Performance also interacted significantly with both the subordinate gender and rater gender variables. Impression management, both as a main effect and in interaction with ratee gender, was also found to influence performance appraisal scores, although to a lesser extent than performance. Defensive impression management tactics, including apologies and excuses, were generally found to have a negative influence on evaluations. The gender variables were only significant when interacting with performance and impression management conditions. [Abstract from author]. Heilman, M. E. & Okimoto, T.G. (2008). Motherhood: A potential source of bias in employment decisions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, Results of 2 experimental studies in which job incumbents were said to be applying for promotions to traditionally male positions demonstrated bias against mothers in competence expectations and in screening recommendations. This bias occurred regardless of whether the research participants were students (Study 1) or working people (Study 2). Although anticipated job commitment, achievement striving, and dependability were rated as generally lower for parents than for nonparents, anticipated competence was uniquely low for mothers. Mediational analyses indicated that, as predicted, negativity in competence expectations, not anticipated job commitment or achievement striving, promoted the motherhood bias in screening recommendations; expected deficits in agentic behaviors, not in dependability, were found to fuel these competence expectations. These findings suggest that motherhood can indeed hinder the career advancement of women and that it is the heightened association with gender stereotypes that occurs when women are mothers that is the source of motherhood's potentially adverse consequences. [Abstract from author] AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 5

7 Heilman, M. E. & Okimoto, T.G. (2007). Why are women penalized for success at male tasks?: The implied communality deficit. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, In 3 experimental studies, the authors tested the idea that penalties women incur for success in traditionally male areas arise from a perceived deficit in nurturing and socially sensitive communal attributes that is implied by their success. The authors therefore expected that providing information of communality would prevent these penalties. Results indicated that the negativity directed at successful female managers in ratings of likability, interpersonal hostility, and boss desirability was mitigated when there was indication that they were communal. This ameliorative effect occurred only when the information was clearly indicative of communal attributes (Study 1) and when it could be unambiguously attributed to the female manager (Study 2); furthermore, these penalties were averted when communality was conveyed by role information (motherhood status) or by behavior (Study 3). These findings support the idea that penalties for women s success in male domains result from the perceived violation of gender-stereotypic prescriptions. [Abstract from author]. Heilman, M. E., & Haynes, M. C. (2005). No credit where credit is due: Attributional rationalization of women s success in male female teams. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, In 3 experimental studies, the authors explored how ambiguity about the source of a successful joint performance outcome promotes attributional rationalization, negatively affecting evaluations of women. Participants read descriptions of a mixed-sex dyad s work and were asked to evaluate its male and female members. Results indicated that unless the ambiguity about individual contribution to the dyad s successful joint outcome was constrained by providing feedback about individual team member performance (Study 1) or by the way in which the task was said to have been structured (Study 2) or unless the negative expectations about women s performance were challenged by clear evidence of prior work competence (Study 3), female members were devalued as compared with their male counterparts they were rated as being less competent, less influential, and less likely to have played a leadership role in work on the task. Implications of these results, both theoretical and practical, are discussed. [Abstract from author]. Heilman, M. E., Wallen, A. S., Fuchs, D., & Tamkins, M. M. (2004). Penalties for success: Reactions to women who succeed at male tasks. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, A total of 242 subjects participated in 3 experimental studies investigating reactions to a woman s success in a male gender-typed job. Results strongly supported the authors hypotheses, indicating that (a) when women are acknowledged to have been successful, they are less liked and more personally derogated than equivalently successful men (Studies 1 and 2); (b) these negative reactions occur only when the success is in an arena that is distinctly male in character (Study 2); and (c) being disliked can have career-affecting outcomes, both for overall evaluation and for recommendations concerning organizational reward allocation (Study 3). These results were taken to support the idea that gender stereotypes can prompt bias in evaluative judgments of women even when these women have proved themselves to be successful and demonstrated their competence. The distinction between prescriptive and descriptive aspects of gender stereotypes is considered, as well as the implications of prescriptive gender norms for women in work settings. [Abstract from author]. Heilman, M. E. (2001). Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women s ascent up the organizational ladder. Journal of Social Issues, 57, This review article posits that the scarcity of women at the upper levels of organizations is a consequence of gender bias in evaluations. It is proposed that gender stereotypes and the expectations they produce about both what women are like (descriptive) and how they should behave (prescriptive) can result in devaluation of their performance, denial of credit to them for their successes, or their penalization for being competent. The processes giving rise to these outcomes are explored, and the procedures that are likely to encourage them are identified. Because of gender bias and the way in which it influences evaluations in work settings, it is argued that being competent does not ensure that a woman will advance to the same organizational level as an equivalently performing man. [Abstract from author] AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 6

8 Heilman,M.E. & Stopeck, M.H. (1985). Attractiveness and corporate success: Different causal attributions for males and females. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, working men and women were presented with the work history of an assistant vice president (AVP) of a midsized corporation who was either an attractive or unattractive male or female. Additionally, the AVP's rise to the senior ranks was depicted as either unusually rapid or normative in pace. Ss read the material and answered an attributional questionnaire. Results indicate that, as predicted, attractiveness had different effects on the degree to which the AVP's success was attributed to ability depending on whether the AVP was male or female: Males' ability attributions were enhanced and females' ability attributions were detrimentally affected by their good looks. Also as expected, capability judgments followed a similar pattern. Appearance was additionally shown to have different consequences for males and females when likeability and interpersonal integrity were rated. However, contrary to predictions, the rapidity of corporate ascent did not interact with appearance or sex in affecting attributions about or impressions of the stimulus AVPs. Conceptual and practical implications are discussed. [Abstract from author]. Heilman, M. E. & Stopeck, M.H. (1985.) Being attractive, advantage or disadvantage? Performance-based evaluations and recommended personnel actions as a function of appearance, sex, and job type. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 35(2), Prompted by a concern with the effects of appearance on how individuals and their work are regarded and how rewards are allocated in work settings, an experiment was conducted to determine whether physical attractiveness differentially affects the performance evaluations and recommended personnel actions for men and women holding managerial and nonmanagerial jobs. As predicted, attractiveness proved to be advantageous for women in nonmanagerial positions and disadvantageous for women in managerial ones. Unexpectedly, however, appearance had no effects whatsoever on reactions to men. Additional results indicated that attractiveness enhanced the perceived femininity of our female stimulus people, but did not enhance the perceived masculinity of those who were male. These data were interpreted as supportive of the idea that the differential effects of appearance in work settings are mediated by gender characterizations, and that fluctuations in the perceived person-job fit are key to understanding the seemingly inconsistent reactions to attractive and unattractive women in employment situations. The theoretical and applied implications of these findings are discussed. [Abstract from author]. Heilman, M. E. (1980). The impact of situational factors on personnel decisions concerning women: Varying the sex composition of the applicant pool. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 26, One hundred male and female MBA students evaluated a woman applicant for a managerial position when the proportion of women in the applicant pool was varied. Results indicated that personnel decisions of both males and females were significantly more unfavorable when women represented 25% or less of the total pool. Additional findings suggest that this effect was mediated by the degree to which sex stereotypes predominated in forming impressions of applicants. The results were interpreted as supportive of the thesis that situational factors can function to reduce the adverse effects of sex stereotypes in employment settings. [Abstract from author] AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 7

9 Heron, S. L., Lovell, E. O., Wang, E., & Bowman, S. H. (2009). Promoting diversity in emergency medicine: Summary recommendations from the 2008 Council of Emergency Medicine Residency Directors (CORD) Academic Assembly Diversity Workgroup. Academic Emergency Medicine, 16, Although the U.S. population continues to become more diverse, ethnic and racial health care disparities persist. The benefits of a diverse medical workforce have been well described, but the percentage of emergency medicine (EM) residents from underrepresented groups (URGs) is small and has not significantly increased over the past 10 years. The Council of Emergency Medicine Resident Directors (CORD) requested that a panel of CORD members review the current state of ethnic and racial diversity in EM training programs. The objective of the discussion was to develop strategies to help EM residency programs examine and improve diversity in their respective institutions. Specific recommendations focus on URG applicant selection and recruitment strategies, cultural competence curriculum development, involvement of URG faculty, and the availability of institutional and national resources to improve and maintain diversity in EM training programs. [Abstract from author]. Hummert, M. L., Mazloff, D., & Henry, C. (1999). Vocal characteristics of older adults and stereotyping. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 23(2), Two studies extended the study of the nonverbal correlates of age stereotypes. In Study 1, 40 young listeners assessed the age of 30 elderly speakers from three age groups: 60 69, 70 79, 80 and over. As expected, perceived age increased linearly with age group, although greater variability was found in judgments of male than of female speakers. For male speakers, mean vocal volume (intensity) and standard deviations in vocal volume were positively correlated with chronological and perceived age. For female speakers, mean pitch, standard deviations in pitch, and vocal jitter were positively correlated with chronological and perceived age. In Study 2, 40 young listeners selected trait sets corresponding to 3 positive and 3 negative elderly stereotypes to describe 6 young-old and 6 old-old speakers. As predicted, listeners associated the old-old voices of females (but not males) with fewer positive stereotypes than the young-old female voices. In addition, young-old male voices were associated with significantly fewer positive stereotypes than young-old female voices. Finally, male participants chose fewer positive stereotypes for young-old male voices than did female participants. These results provide information on the ways in which vocal characteristics may serve to activate stereotypes in interaction. [Abstract from author]. Hummert, M. L. & Garstka, T.A. (1994). Stereotypes of the elderly held by young, middle-aged, and elderly adults. Journal of Gerontology, 49(5), This two-part study extended the research on multiple stereotypes of elderly adults by examining the perceptions of young, middle-aged, and elderly adults. First, one set of participants engaged in a trait generation task which yielded a trait list for use in the second part of the study. Second, other participants sorted the set of traits into groups representing different types of elderly individuals. Trait groupings were analyzed with hierarchical cluster analysis. Results supported the hypothesis that older adults have more complex representations of aging than do middle-aged and young ones, and that middle-aged adults have more complex representations than do young ones. For example, middle-aged and elderly adults reported more stereotypes of the elderly than did young adults, and elderly adults reported more stereotypes than did middle-aged adults. Results also showed, as expected, that these differences in complexity exist against a background of general agreement about the nature of aging: trait lists produced by those in the three age groups were significantly correlated, and the stereotype sets of the three age groups included seven shared stereotypes. Results are interpreted in terms of their support for two alternative explanations of the complexity differences: ingroup/outgroup and developmental. [Abstract from author] AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 8

10 Isaac, C., Lee, B., & Carnes, M. (2009). Interventions that affect gender bias in hiring: A systematic review. Academic Medicine, 84(10), Purpose: To systematically review experimental evidence for interventions mitigating gender bias in employment. Unconscious endorsement of gender stereotypes can undermine academic medicine s commitment to gender equity. Method: The authors performed electronic and hand searches for randomized controlled studies since 1973 of interventions that impact gender differences in evaluation of job applicants. Twenty-seven studies met all inclusion criteria. Interventions fell into three categories: application information, applicant features, and rating conditions. Results: The studies identified gender bias as the difference in ratings or perceptions of men and women with identical qualifications. Studies reaffirmed negative bias against women being evaluated for positions traditionally or predominantly held by men (male sex-typed jobs). The assessments of male and female raters rarely differed. Interventions that provided raters with clear evidence of job-relevant competencies were effective. However, clearly competent women were rated lower than equivalent men for male sex-typed jobs unless evidence of communal qualities was also provided. A commitment to the value of credentials before review of applicants and women s presence at above 25% of the applicant pool eliminated bias against women. Two studies found unconscious resistance to anti-bias training, which could be overcome with distraction or an intervening task. Explicit employment equity policies and an attractive appearance benefited men more than women; whereas repeated employment gaps were more detrimental to men. Masculine-scented perfume favored the hiring of both sexes. Negative bias occurred against women who expressed anger or who were perceived as self-promoting. Conclusion: High-level evidence exists for strategies to mitigate gender bias in hiring. [Abstract from author]. Ito, T.A. & Urland, G.R. (2003). Race and gender on the brain: Electrocortical measures of attention to the race and gender of multiply categorizable individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(4), The degree to which perceivers automatically attend to and encode social category information was investigated. Event-related brain potentials were used to assess attentional and working-memory processes on-line as participants were presented with pictures of Black and White males and females. The authors found that attention was preferentially directed to Black targets very early in processes (by about 100 ms after stimulus onset) in both experiments. Attention to gender also emerged early but occurred about 50 ms later than attention to race. Later working-memory processes were sensitive to more complex relations between the group memberships of a target individual and the surrounding social context. These working-memory processes were sensitive to both the explicit categorization task participants were performing as well as more implicit, task-irrelevant categorization dimensions. Results are consistent with models suggesting that information about certain category dimensions is encoded relatively automatically. [Abstract from author]. King, E.B., Mendoza, S.A., Madera, J.M., Hebl, M.R., & Knight, J.L. (2006). What's in a name? A multiracial investigation of the role of occupational stereotypes in selection decisions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36(5), Bertrand & Mullainathan (2002) found evidence that race-typed names can have a significant influence on the evaluation of résumés. The current study expanded on their research by manipulating both the race (Asian American, Black, Hispanic, White) and quality of the résumé (high, low), and by considering occupational stereotypes as an explanatory mechanism. White male participants (N=155) read a fictitious résumé, evaluated the applicant, and judged his suitability for jobs. The results revealed that Asian American individuals were evaluated highly for high-status jobs, regardless of their résumé quality. White and Hispanic applicants both benefited from a high-quality résumé, but Black applicants were evaluated negatively, even with strong credentials. Results of mediation analyses demonstrated that occupational stereotypes accounted for the relationship between race and evaluations of applicants. [Abstract from author] AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 9

11 Kite, M. E. & Johnson, B.T. (1988). Attitudes toward older and younger adults: A meta-analysis. Psychology and Aging, 3, Attitudes toward the elderly have been examined in a number of empirical studies, yet the question of whether the elderly are viewed more negatively than younger persons has not been resolved. A metaanalysis of the literature was conducted to examine this question; results demonstrated that attitudes toward the elderly are more negative than attitudes toward younger people. However, smaller differences between the evaluations of elderly and younger targets were found when (a) the study used measures of personality traits (compared with measures of competence), (b) there were a larger number of dependent measures included in the effect size, (c) specific information was provided about the target person (compared with when a general target such as old person was used), and (d) a between-subjects design (compared with a within-subjects design) was used. These results support Lutsky's (1981) conclusion that age, in and of itself, seems to be less important in determining attitudes toward the elderly than other types of information. The methodological limitations within the literature and a need to consider multiple components of attitudes toward older individuals are discussed. [Abstract from author]. Lerner, J. S. & Tetlock, P.E. (1999). Accounting for the effects of accountability. Psychological Bulletin, 125(2), This article reviews the now extensive research literature addressing the impact of accountability on a wide range of social judgments and choices. It focuses on 4 issues: (a) What impact do various accountability ground rules have on thoughts, feelings, and action? (b) Under what conditions will accountability attenuate, have no effect on, or amplify cognitive biases? (c) Does accountability alter how people think or merely what people say they think? and (d) What goals do accountable decision makers seek to achieve? In addition, this review explores the broader implications of accountability research. It highlights the utility of treating thought as a process of internalized dialogue; the importance of documenting social and institutional boundary conditions on putative cognitive biases; and the potential to craft empirical answers to such applied problems as how to structure accountability relationships in organizations. [Abstract from author]. Mahoney, M.R., Wilson, E., Odom, K.L., Flowers, L., & Adler, S.R. (2008). Minority faculty voices on diversity in academic medicine: Perspectives from one school. Academic Medicine, 83, Purpose: To examine the perceptions and experiences of ethnic minority faculty at University of California-San Francisco regarding racial and ethnic diversity in academic medicine, in light of a constitutional measure outlawing race- and gender-based affirmative action programs by public universities in California. Method: In 2005, underrepresented minority faculty in the School of Medicine at University of California-San Francisco were individually interviewed to explore three topics: participants' experiences as minorities, perspectives on diversity and discrimination in academic medicine, and recommendations for improvement. Interviews were tape-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and subsequently coded using principles of qualitative, text-based analysis in a four-stage review process. Results: Thirty-six minority faculty (15 assistant professors, 11 associate professors, and 10 full professors) participated, representing diversity across specialties, faculty rank, gender, and race/ethnicity. Seventeen were African American, 16 were Latino, and 3 were Asian. Twenty participants were women. Investigators identified four major themes: (1) choosing to participate in diversity-related activities, driven by personal commitment and institutional pressure, (2) the gap between intention and implementation of institutional efforts to increase diversity, (3) detecting and reacting to discrimination, and (4) a need for a multifaceted approach to mentorship, given few available minority mentors. Conclusions: Minority faculty are an excellent resource for identifying strategies to improve diversity in academic medicine. Participants emphasized the strong association between effective mentorship and career satisfaction, and many delineated unique mentoring needs of minority faculty that persist throughout academic ranks. Findings have direct application to future institutional policies in recruitment and retention of underrepresented minority faculty. [Abstract from author] AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 10

12 Martell, R.F. (1991). Sex bias at work: The effects of attentional and memory demands on performance ratings of men and women. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21(23), The present study examined the impact of attentional and memory demands on work performance ratings accorded men and women in traditionally male jobs. Of interest was whether sex discrimination would abate in the face of individuating and job-relevant work behavior even when the demands likely to be faced in actual work settings were taken into account. Two hundred and two subjects read a vignette depicting the work behavior of a male or female police officer and then rated the individual's work performance. The attentional demands imposed on subjects while reading the vignette and the amount of time elapsed prior to issuing the performance ratings were systematically varied. As predicted, men were evaluated more favorably than women when raters were faced with an additional task requiring attention and time pressures were made salient. Only when subjects were able to carefully allocate all of their attentional resources did sex bias in work performance ratings abate. Memory demands had no effects on work performance ratings. Gender-related work characterizations paralleled the performance ratings, providing support for the idea that sex stereotypes mediate discrimination in performance appraisal judgments. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings, as well as suggestions for future research, are discussed. [Abstract from author]. Martell, R. F. & Guzzo,R.A. (1991). The dynamics of implicit theories of group performance: When and how do they operate? Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,50(1), undergraduates observed a task performing group and then were given positive, negative, or no performance feedback. Immediately after or 1 wk later, Ss completed an evaluative rating scale and a questionnaire measuring their recollections of the group's effective and ineffective behavior. Evaluative ratings and behavioral recollections were distorted by performance cues. However, contrary to predictions, only in immediate rating conditions were recollections of ineffective behavior affected. Distorted recollections of the group's behavior appeared to be the result of a systematic response bias in which observers adopted a more liberal decision criterion when judging the occurrence of expected behaviors. [Abstract from author]. Martell, R. F., Lane, D.M., & Emrich, C. (1996). Male-female differences: A computer simulation. American Psychologist,51, Agrees with A. H. Eagly's (see record ) contention that the use of easily understood metrics (binomial effects size display and the common language effect) are not entirely sufficient at showing a significant sex effect. The authors recommend the use of computer simulations as a tool for assessing the impact of sex differences. Results of a computer simulation regarding the effects of pyramid structure and initial performance ratings on limitations of the upward mobility of women in the workplace confirm Eagly's point that the effects of male female differences are best determined not only by the magnitude of the effect but its consequences in natural settings. Moskowitz, G. B., Gollwitzer, P.M., Wasel, W., & Schaal, B. (1999). Preconscious control of stereotype activation through chronic egalitarian goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, This research shows stereotype activation is controlled by chronic egalitarian goals. In the first 2 studies it was found that the stereotype of women is equally available to individuals with and without chronic goals, and the discriminant validity of the concept of egalitarian goals was established. In the next 2 experiments, differences in stereotype activation as a function of this individual difference were found. In Study 3, participants read attributes following stereotypical primes. Facilitated response times to stereotypical attributes were found for nonchronics but not for chronics. This lack of facilitation occurred at stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) where effortful correction processes could not operate, demonstrating preconscious control of stereotype activation due to chronic goals. In Study 4, inhibition of the stereotype was found at an SOA where effortful processes of stereotype suppression could not operate. The data reveal that goals are activated and used preconsciously to prevent stereotype activation, demonstrating both the controllability of stereotype activation and the implicit role of goals in cognitive control. [Abstract from author] AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 11

13 Nelson, D.J. (2005). A national analysis of diversity in science and engineering faculties at research universities. University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK. Retrieved from: The first national and most comprehensive analysis to date of tenured and tenure track faculty in the top 50 departments of science and engineering disciplines shows that females and minorities are significantly underrepresented. [From executive summary]. Nelson, T. E., Biernat, M.R., & Manis, M. (1990). Everyday base rates (sex stereotypes): Potent and resilient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,59(4), Undergraduate subjects studied photographs of students and estimated the heights of the pictured models. Contrary to reports of base-rate neglect, sex stereotypes regarding height (the implicit recognition that men are normally taller than women) significantly affected these estimates, even when the targets' actual height was statistically controlled. Base rates were especially influential when information about targets was ambiguous, that is when targets were pictured seated. These base-rate effects were robust, remaining significant and substantial despite efforts to lessen their magnitude. Attempts to reduce base-rate effects by encouraging subjects to strive for accuracy, discouraging their reliance on the target's sex (as a cue), or offering cash rewards for accuracy did not succeed. Informing subjects that for the sample to be judged, sex would not predict targets' heights attenuated the base-rate effect, although it remained highly significant. [Abstract from author]. Nosek, B. A., Smyth, F. L., Sriram, N., Lindner, N. M., Devos, T., Ayala, A., Greenwald, A.G. (2009). National differences in gender science stereotypes predict national sex differences in science and math achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(6), About 70% of more than half a million Implicit Association Tests completed by citizens of 34 countries revealed expected implicit stereotypes associating science with males more than with females. We discovered that nation-level implicit stereotypes predicted nation-level sex differences in 8th-grade science and mathematics achievement. Self-reported stereotypes did not provide additional predictive validity of the achievement gap. We suggest that implicit stereotypes and sex differences in science participation and performance are mutually reinforcing, contributing to the persistent gender gap in science engagement. [Abstract from author]. Paludi, M.A. & Bauer, W.D. (1983). Goldberg revisited: What's in an author's name. Sex Roles, 9(3), The present research was a replication and extension of Goldberg's 1968 study of performance evaluation. 360 college students (180 male; 180 female) were asked to evaluate an academic article in the fields of politics, psychology of women or education (judged masculine, feminine, and neutral, respectively) that was written either by a male, female, or an author whose name was initialized. Results indicated that the articles were differentially perceived and evaluated according to the name of the author. An article written by a male was evaluated more favorably than if the author was not male. Subjects' bias against women was stronger when they believed the author with the initialized name was female. [Abstract from author] AAMC. May not be reproduced without permission. 12