Historically there has been a strong relationship between music

Transcription

1 Sport Science Review, vol. Sport XXIII, Science no. Review, 3-4, 2014, vol. 127 XXIII, - 150No. 3-4, August 2014 DOI: /ssr High School Volleyball Athletes Perceptions of Creating and Using Pre-Competition Warm-Up Music Jeremy T. YEATS 1 Michael C. RHOADS 2 Mark A. SMITH 3 Lauren O. WHITE 3 Historically there has been a strong relationship between music and sport performance. While research exists examining the relationship between music and sport performance, little attention has been paid to the role of pre-competition warm-up music or the effects of having teams create music playlists. After interviewing 12 female high school volleyball players, it was determined that warm-up music can play a large role in enhancing sport performance. Using a thematic analysis, four major themes were found: motivation, mood, performance effects, and cohesion. Future research should explore the effects of music for sport performance using an experimental design. Additionally, the following variables warrant further investigation: individual differences in music preference, the impact of seniority on playlist creation and cohesion, the quantitative assessment of the themes (motivation, mood, performance effects, cohesion), and how music can be detrimental to performance. Keywords: cohesion, mood, motivation, performance effects 1 Department of Human Performance and Physical Education, Adams State University, Alamosa, Colorado, United States of America 2 Front Range Community College, Longmont, Colorado, United States of America 3 School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, Colorado, United States of America ISSN: (print) /(online) National Institute for Sport Research Bucharest, Romania 127

2 Pre-Competition Warm-Up Music For over 5 decades, research has examined the physical effects of music (Ellis & Brighouse, 1952). However, recently there has been an increase of interest from researchers in studying the use of music in different sport and exercises settings (e.g. Priest & Karageorghis, 2008; Karageorghis, Jones, & Low, 2006; Priest & Sharp, 2004; Szabo, Small, & Leigh, 1999; North & Hargreaves, 1998; Boutcher & Trenske, 1990; Yeats & Smith, 2011). There is mounting evidence that carefully selected music can improve exercise performance (Karageorghis, Jones, & Low, 2006; Tenenbaum et al., 2004; Pates, Fryer, & Maynard, 2003; Szabo, Small, & Leigh, 1999). Studies in both music and sport have detailed the ability of music to elevate mood (Hayakawa et al. 2000; Hargreaves & North, 1999), increase performance (Eliakin, Meckel, Nemet & Eliakim, 2007) and increase the probability of attaining flow states and motivation (Priest & Karageorghis, 2008; Pates et al., 2003; Pelletier et al., 1995). Although many studies have examined specific variables (perceived exertion, motivation, flow and performance) in the music and exercise fields, very few studies have investigated the impact of pre-competition music to enhance sports performance in athletes. Relationships between sport and music are vast. According to Segrave, sport and music have a deep and abiding relationship (Segrave in Bateman & Bale, 2009, p. 113). Sound has been a central aspect of sport, and has been studied in a variety of ways (Bateman & Bale, 2009). For instance, cheering, clapping, chanting, shouting, and singing are commonplace, and occupy considerable amount of time at many sporting events (Bateman & Bale, 2009, p. 1). These practices have occurred since the beginning of sport. Characteristics of Music Accompanying Exercise Although many studies have looked at specific variables in the music and exercise fields, there have been a few studies that have comprehensively analyzed the characteristics and effects of music accompanying exercise and sport (Priest & Karageorghis, 2008; Priest & Karageorghis, 2004; Boutcher & Trenske, 1990). Boutcher (1990) measured volunteer woman (N=24) with ergometers in 18-minute cycling sessions. He compared control, deprived, and music condition groups to see how those variables interact with perceived exertion, affect, and heart rate. Boutcher found no differences in heart rate; however, he did find that significantly lower perceived exertion existed during the music versus deprived condition at low and moderate workloads. Priest, Karageorghis, & Sharp (2004) investigated characteristics and effects of motivational music in British athletic clubs. The study also looked at these effects and characteristics as they relate to: gender, age, frequency of attendance, and the time of day which they participated. The authors prepared a 128

3 Sport Science Review, vol. XXIII, No. 3-4, August 2014 brief questionnaire, and consulted with the athletic club and exercise psychology researchers. Results indicated that music programs of gymnasiums should account for preferences of different groups that attend the gym at different times. Older participants expressed preferences for slower and generally less stimulating music. Priest & Karageorghis (2008) identified the characteristics of music used to accompany physical exercise and investigate the effects of such music. Findings included that music that was perceived to be motivating and could lead to increased exercise intensity and endurance during performance of self-regulated tasks. Based on the prior work of Karageorghis (1997) and Priest (2004), Priest and Karageorghis developed a conceptual framework to predict responses to motivational music in exercise and sport. In this conceptual framework music factors (rhythm response and musicality) work in conjunction with personal factors (cultural impact and association) to create motivational qualities. Motivational qualities were predicted to influence arousal control, reductions in perceived exertion, and improved mood, which in turn are related to the hopeful exercise adherence. However, conceptually there were no reductions in perceived exertions predicted for pre-event routines, as generally you would not exert yourself too heavily before an event. Both the musical factors and personal factors must be looked at further, and many studies have started to examine how rhythm response/musicality and cultural impact/associations are validated ways of looking at music and exercise. Rhythm Response Rhythm response and musicality have been studied in detail (Karageorghis, Jones, & Low, 2006; Tenenbaum et al., 2004; Szabo, Small, & Leigh, 1999; North, Hargreaves, and Heath, 1998). Exercise variables coinciding with the musical variables have ranged from: exercise heart rate (Karageorghis, Jones, & Low, 2006), running perseverance and coping with effort sensations (Tenenbaum et al., 2004), progressive cycling and voluntary physical exhaustion (Szabo, Small, & Leigh, 1999), and time perception in a gymnasium. In 2006, Karageorghis, Jones, & Low found that Caucasian young adults in the UK generally preferred musical tempos in the medium to fast range ( bpm), even at low exercise intensities. However, the authors caution readers to be aware of possible negative affect responses to this music, such as boredom and irritation. Karageorghis et al. (2006) proposed a possible solution to this problem, and suggested that in order to maximize affective response to music, a variation in tempo may be the optimal solution as long as it is in a certain bandwidth of tempi. Szabo, Small, and Leigh (1999), used classical music with slow, fast, slow to fast, and fast to slow tempi in a progressive cycling situation, with 24 male and 129

4 Pre-Competition Warm-Up Music female college students. Significantly higher workload to heart rate reserve ratio existed in the slow to fast tempo condition. Also, the results yielded significantly higher workload being accomplished with the slow to fast music. Although many studies have shown very promising results for the use of music in exercise and sport, there also have been studies that have found little to no effects. Tenenbaum et al. (2004) conducted three studies, with two being on a treadmill and one on a field, on a hilly course eight times (Four of these under a competitive-pair condition, and four under a single-mode condition). Participants were males with an age range of 15-35, who regularly participated in running fewer than 3 times per week. Music did not influence heart rate, reductions in perceived exertion, or sensations of exertion in all three studies. Some of the participants (30%) did indicate music helped them at the beginning of the run, and stated that music directed their attention and motivated them to continue. North (1988) investigated the effects of slow and fast musical tempi on retrospective estimates of time duration of their personal workout in a university gymnasium. Their hypothesis stated since fast music (>120bpm) contains more information within a given time period, people who attended the gymnasium whilst fast music was played should perceive themselves as having spent longer time therein than people who attended in the presence of slow music (<80bpm). The results showed that musical tempo did not influence time duration estimates positively or negatively. However, slow music led to a greater degree of inaccuracy of time duration estimates. Overall, the participants tended to underestimate the amount of time spent in the gym. Additionally, findings more pronounced for female. Findings, therefore demonstrated that musical tempo can influence the perception of time duration of workouts in a gymnasium. In alignment with Merriam s psychological functions of music (1964), it is apparent that emotional expression and physical response play a role in cyclists motivation and perceived time of exertion. The question then becomes, how and why these effects are taking place. It is evident that researchers are trying to create optimal conditions for athletes to perform. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi studied the psychology of the optimal experience for over 3 decades. Transformation of time and the autotelic experience are two dimensions of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990), and appear to be strongly related to the findings of Merriam (1964), North (1998), and Tenenbaum et al. (2004). Flow states and other psychological correlates have received increasing attention in the sport science field (Jackson et al., 1998). Areas of interest have 130

5 Sport Science Review, vol. XXIII, No. 3-4, August 2014 included: background music relating to flow states and athletic performance (Pates et al., 2003), psychological correlates of flow in sport (Jackson et al., 1998), development and validation of the flow state scale (FSS) and sport motivation scale (SMS) (Jackson & Marsh, 1996; Pelletier et al., 1995), and other mental skills training relating mental practice to performance (Kendall et al., 1990). With the discovery of the links between mental practice through imagery rehearsal, relaxation, and self-talk being related to increased sport performance (Kendall et al., 1990), there has been a considerable interest in understanding what kind of treatment package leads to optimal experiences in sport. Past research in music, exercise and sport, music psychology, flow states, and motivation demonstrates how they are all interrelated. This literature review found a hole in the research (i.e. there has not studies looking at the use of music as a pedagogical strategy). The gap in the literature calls for future research. The gap was addressed in this study, by the analysis of pedagogical techniques with the intent of beginning to understand reasons why coaches allow precompetition warm-up music. Although many studies have examined how music impacts sports participation and exercise, very few have delved into how music has been used in sports settings and the pedagogical implications and assumptions underlying the use of music. Yeats & Smith (2011) examined the pedagogical practices and perceptions of female high school volleyball coaches, regarding pre-competition warm-up music. The coaches truly believed that a consequence of the warm-up music was the improvement of motivation, mood, and team cohesion and that the positive influences on these constructs could lead to better performance in warm-ups, which might lead to increases in performance during competition. In addition, because the athletes were given a choice of what music to play for their pre-competition playlist, coaches perceived results of those choices were that athletes put more effort into their warm-up (Yeats & Smith). Regardless of the pedagogical strategies employed by high school women s volleyball coaches, having athletes determine and create pre-competition warm-up music was seen as positive and perceptually enhanced team and individual performance. Many athletes utilize music as a part of their pre-performance routines and rituals. Music can be a choice that is personal through the use of ipods, MP3 players and even car stereos. For others, music is the result of the predetermined environment and the venue s public address system. Regardless of the delivery, music plays a crucial role in an athletes pre-competition phase of performance. There are a variety of circumstances in which players need to prepare for competition, and pre-competition music could change in different sporting environments, depending on the structure of the warm-up. For instance, in 131

6 Pre-Competition Warm-Up Music some sport settings the event organizers determine the music to be played, in other settings the coaches have input, still in other settings coaches do allow their athletes to make musical selections. In the settings where the coaches allow athletes to make musical selections the following questions arise: What are the athletes perceptions of the development and use of athlete created playlist? What are the perceived benefits and affects the warm-up music has on performance? What are the perceived advantages and disadvantages of the process and use of self-selected musical play-lists? When do the athletes think is the optimal time and context to develop the play list and/or CD? Do the athletes perceive the creation of the CD as a positive or negative team-building activity? Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine high school varsity volleyball players perceptions of the effects of creating and using a musical warm-up play list. Methods Based on a qualitative research paradigm, it was important to meticulously and thoroughly detail not only the methodology and the methods used to collect and analyze data, but also to provide support and justifications for the underlying philosophical assumptions (Creswell, 2007; Crotty, 1998). According to Crotty, researchers need to address the assumptions, which guide their work, and they must also chronicle their epistemology and theoretical perspectives. In this study, Crotty s proposed four elements of social research were used as the conceptual framework. The four elements used were: epistemology, theoretical perspective, methodology, and methods. The researchers in this study used constructivism as the central epistemological perspective. Constructivism focuses on meaning created in an individual mind (Crotty, 1998). Researchers believed that knowledge is constructed through individual experience and interactions with the world around them, and are not simply discovered. Strictly speaking, examining players perspectives related to the use of music in pre-competition settings provided an opportunity for the player to not only share her perspective, but also to understand and construct new meaning as a result of reflecting upon it and sharing it (Bruner, 1990). Regarding the theoretical perspective, an interpretivist approach was utilized, since athletes were examining cultural practices derived from historical traditions, which were situated within their interpretations of the social lifeworld (Crotty, 1998, p. 67). The stated purpose of this study clearly followed an interpretivist perspective since the study was designed to evoke players values and beliefs of music as something that enhances performance. 132

7 Sport Science Review, vol. XXIII, No. 3-4, August 2014 The third component defined by Crotty (1998) is methodology. To best examine the purpose, the methodological approach of phenomenology guided the study, since phenomenology focuses on an individuals everyday constructed reality based on their conscious experiences (Merriam). In order to further elaborate on Crotty s (1988) fourth element of social research, methods, three sections are used to describe specific elements: participants and context, data collection, and data analysis. Participants and Context The participants of the study were athletes from two female high school varsity volleyball teams who created and played their own warm-up play lists prior to home competitions. Once IRB approval had been received, access to athletes was gained initially through contacting coaches, through and phone calls, who were known by the researchers to use athlete created musical play lists prior to competition. Athletic directors granted permission to conduct the study. Also, pseudonyms were used so that high schools are not identifiable. Snowball sampling was used to identify other coaches that use similar pedagogical practices related to athlete centered warm-up play lists, who were then contacted by phone or . Through purposeful and snowball sampling athletes were asked to participate in the study. Of these, 12 female high school varsity volleyball athletes participated. Once participants agreed to participate in the study, a parental consent and child assent form was distributed to the parents and the athlete. Upon completion of consent and assent documents a time and location was mutually agreed upon to conduct a minute interview. The interview was conducted with a female non-participant observer. Data Collection Procedures Qualitative research is usually assessed in terms of trustworthiness, accuracy, consistency and plausibility (Blumenfeld-Jones, 1995). One method, triangulation, addressed these criteria by examining the research question from a variety of angles using different data collection tools. Accordingly, this study examined athlete perceptions of the effects of creating and using a musical warm-up play lists through two primary data collection sources: (a) Athlete Interviews (b) Artifacts. Interviews. When attempting to gain understanding of the underlying structures of an individual s meaning, traditionally, the phenomenological interview has been the primary method of data collection (Merriam, 1998). Each interview lasted between 25 and 45 minutes. The purpose of the interview was to have the athlete describe: a) The CD production procedures, including when 133

8 Pre-Competition Warm-Up Music they develop the CD, the process for the development of the CD, perceptions of the process, and team-building qualities they observed; and (b) The perceived effects of the warm-up music on the athletes as an individual and a team to determine if it does impact motivation, mood, team cohesion, inspiration, and performance. All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim (with exception of pseudonyms to provide anonymity). Participants were given an opportunity to review the transcripts of the interviews to ensure accuracy, allowing for comments and the identification of errors. Returning interviews was a form of member checking (Creswell, 2006; Merriam, 1998) Artifacts. During the formal interview athletes were not only asked to describe and detail the warm-up process in relation to the pre-competition music, but were also asked to provide examples of play lists and CDs included. The researchers asked the players prior to the interview to bring examples, but also collected samples at a later date in person. Artifacts were collected as supporting evidence related to the planning and production process, and a video of the warm-up process was also collected and analyzed. Examples of artifacts collected included, a copy of the Warm-up CD, original play-lists, and video of the warm-up routine. Data Analysis Procedures All twelve of the participants responses were analyzed using two distinct yet overlapping processes of analysis derived from a grounded theoretical perspective: open and axial coding (Strauss & Corbin, 2008). Open coding is the process of developing categories of concepts, and themes derived from the data. Open and axial coding provided researchers with a structure from which to analyze data. It is important to note that the actual procedures are not as important as the task of identifying the essence of the meaning of data (Strauss & Corbin, p. 160). In this study, open coding was used to analyze interview transcripts, and additional school artifacts by reviewing multiple times and making notes in the margins of the documents about their possible meaning; therefore aligning with the epistemological and theoretical frameworks. Additionally, open coding involved the process of conceptualizing, defining categories, and developing categories of results in terms of their properties and dimensions. The first step in data analysis was an independent analysis of the 12 interview transcripts, where meaning units were identified by the researchers working independently. Once independent analysis was complete a shared open coding analysis comprising of discussing interpretations, meaning units and codes were conducted. After rereading and coding the transcripts, open coding was conducted by the lead researcher to conceptualize, define, and develop 134

9 Sport Science Review, vol. XXIII, No. 3-4, August 2014 categories of results in terms of their properties. At the completion of open coding, axial coding was employed by the researchers working autonomously to determine and build connections within categories. In this phase, the goal was to systematically develop and relate categories to one another. This step also included the process of sorting out the relationships between concepts and sub-concepts with the ultimate goal to discover the ways that categories relate to each other. By having at least 3 researchers involved in the constant review of themes and sub-themes it enhanced the trustworthiness of the study. For this entire qualitative process, it was important to ensure that the methods and procedures minimized bias and maximized trustworthiness (Merriam, 1998). When an individual researcher conducts qualitative analysis there is always a potential for bias. By having four researchers independently and collaboratively analyze the narratives, investigator triangulation (Patton, 2002) was established and the potential for bias reduced. Reliability was addressed through inter-reader agreement of the emerging themes and an audit trail, including records of music play-lists and warm-up procedures, as well as data collection and analysis procedures (Creswell, 2006; Merriam, 1998). Findings Analysis illustrated a clear connection between the use of music and a perceived increase in athletic performance, across four themes, increased motivation, mood, cohesion, and performance enhancement. All 12 players believed that being able to create and play pre-competition music play-lists increasingly motivated them as athletes to perform to their maximal potential and provided a maximal motivational climate for successful performance. Linked with motivation was the second theme mood. Athletes felt comfortable with the stability and consistency of developing established pre-competition routines. Players expressed that being able to develop pre-competition musical play-lists as an instructional strategy in pre-season helped their teams to develop team cohesion. Players also believe that having self-selected music enhanced performance and focus. Athletes elaborated on how performance is enhanced in a mental and physical capacity. Increased focus and players perceiving being able to jump higher after the warm-up demonstrates how the music gives them autonomy and competence. Thematic Analysis Succeeding systematic analysis of the collected data, four key themes were identified, increased motivation, mood, cohesion, and performance effects. Subthemes for mood included enjoyment and happiness, and social facilitation. 135

10 Pre-Competition Warm-Up Music Sub-themes for performance effects included enhancement, inhibition, and individual differences. Motivation. Motivation refers to the process of initiating, directing, and sustaining behavior (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, p. 182). Giving people choices, to give effort in a certain direction, and persist over time. Motivation is a continuum from amotivation, to extrinsic motivation, to intrinsic motivation. Amotivation is the lack of intentionality and personal causation. Extrinsic motivation moves from external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, to integrated regulation. Intrinsic motivation has a defining feature of participating for enjoyment, pleasure, and fun, no reward is present. Each player interviewed believed that the process of creating the precompetition warm-up music impacted individuals and the team to be motivated to compete. The players declared that they believed that the warm-up music that they created increasingly motivated them to perform to their full potential and provided an appropriate pre-competition motivational climate for successful performance. One player mentioned: Warm-up music for me gets me motivated. It gets me into the game and it puts my mindset into volleyball (Participant 1). Another player gave a specific example of a song that motivated her. The song Fighter by Christina Aguilera, that song is very inspirational, it just like makes you want to push farther (Participant 8). According to Florenthal and Shoham (2001), Arousal is defined as the impact of persuasive information on changes in attitude and behavioral intentions toward risky sports for arousal-seeking versus arousal-avoidance individuals, was an identified sub-theme of motivation. The model consists of three components. The first is individuals general arousal tendency (arousal seeking versus arousal avoidance), defined as a state of mind. It is based on the theory of psychological reversals or, in short, reversal theory (Smith & Apter, 1975). The second component is attitude toward risky sports, which combines two subcomponents: affective (evaluation of risky sports attributes) and cognitive (belief that these attributes characterize risky sports). Arousal, according to the research optimum performance should be seen at levels of moderate arousal. As arousal approaches extremes (a comatose state on one end and panic attack on the other), performance will decline accordingly (Arent & Landers, 2003). Arousal is depicted by one participant who stated When you have fast beats as music you tend to get warmed-up quicker and you tend to follow the beat of the song so it s like more moving and you re ready to go (Participant 6). Another participant described an aggressive mood that music instilled in her which was highly arousing: I am pumped up, I wanna go 136

11 Sport Science Review, vol. XXIII, No. 3-4, August 2014 kill somebody, I want to go crush a ball at them. It picks me up (Participant 8). A number of other participants elaborated on this notion of how music can be motivating and arousing: I would say because it gets me pumped up, and like when you are listening to that loud crazy music before a game, your adrenaline is running, and I think it gets me jumping higher, like I am able to hit it (the ball) harder and stuff, and I think it is that way for everybody, because it gets that adrenaline going (Participant 9). Another participant detailed arousal: To listen to music just always gets you more excited and ready to go (Participant 10). At an extreme level of arousal, a few participants described how music can help them enter in to a flow experience: I think it s sort of gets me in the zone. When it s something that s really got a fast beat or rock it just gets me all pumped up and ready to play (Participant 11). Participant 12 elaborated on arousal relating to focus, I know, personally, I kind of zone in on what I need to do when a song comes on. A majority of the athletes interviewed in this study gave insight on how the warm-up music served as an arousal-seeking experience. Mood. According to the American Psychiatric Association (2000) mood is a pervasive and sustained emotion that colors the perception of the world; a subjective, experienced emotion. Participants mentioned how part of the purpose of warm-up music is to get in a good mood. A lot of times that is what it s used for is it gets everybody pumped up and in a good mood (Participant 5). Another participant elaborates on this concept. It like brings us into the mood, and after the first game you are already in the mood and you just keep going with it (Participant 8).Another participant says, Actually it lifts your mood up because I love loud music and it makes me happy. I think that s how most of our team is (Participant 11). The emotions of the players clearly changed after the warm-up routine accompanied by their warm-up music. Enjoyment and Happiness. A major emotion which participants experienced when listening to warm-up music was happiness. The following responses from participants demonstrate the impact of music on enjoyment and happiness: Yeah we have a lot of fun cause we get in a circle and we do a little dance move (Participant 2). So we ll just turn the music on and pepper and warm up and stuff. It s just really fun (Participant 5). The warm-up music makes me a lot more excited, loud, and happy (Participant 9). I think that it makes me want to play, you hear blasting music in the gym and it makes it more fun and so you enjoy it. You want to go out and play (Participant 11). 137

12 Pre-Competition Warm-Up Music Participant responses depict how important it is for the players to feel happy and that they are enjoying their time with their teammates before competitive situations. Participants also described how music helped them turn their mood around and start feeling happy. I ve come to practice in a really bad mood before and then we started playing music and it got me a little bit more, it really helped me kind of get out of that mood and just forget about everything else that was going on. And, cause without that like you have, you can keep that on your mind really easily. But then when you have music like that it ll really get your mind off that it. Cause when you start listening to the song and enjoying yourself instead of just focusing in whatever happened during the day. (Participant 5). The same participant goes on to say, It kind of keeps us in a little bit of a lighter mood and that helps a lot with not getting frustrated with ourselves or each other. And we have more fun with it and then we play better when we re having more fun (Participant 5). Even when external forces, outside of volleyball, make players upset, mad, or have other distracting emotions, the warm-up music serves as a treatment to alter their moods for the better. Social Facilitation. Another sub-theme that was evident in participants interviews was social facilitation. Participants noticed how watching teammates get pumped up from the music helped them get pumped up as well. I know when you are having a bad a school, and when you listen to the music and you see everybody around you is getting pumped up, it is really loud, and it gets you, like you can be fired up, and it changes your mood like that (Participant 8). Additionally, seeing others dance and loosen up to music affected the athlete s mood and game preparation: We would kind of just dance, and before the game, while we are warming up, like when the JV is playing, we would kind of like dance, and have like a dance party before, it helps us get loose with each other, and just be ourselves around each other. (Participant 8). One participant talked about how music gets teammates in the same mindset: 138

13 Sport Science Review, vol. XXIII, No. 3-4, August 2014 Yeah sometimes in practice we ll do, we ll be practicing and then somebody will say something about a song and then we ll all have it stuck in our head and then we ll all hum it or like just song it in our head. And it will be stuck in our heads for the rest of practice, and. But it s usually based off of something that somebody says. And then it will remind you of that song. And then it s there for the rest of practice. Like even in games it s happened a couple of times. (Participant 5). The determination of the other players being increased by the warm-up music spread throughout the team. Cohesion. Carron & Brawley (2000) defined cohesion as a dynamic process that is reflected in part by the tendency of a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives and/or for the satisfaction of members affective needs. Team members work together for a common goal, and how well team members like one another and derive personal enjoyment from being part of a team. There were a number of participants descriptions for how the creation of a warm-up music playlist leads to team cohesion: It bonds the team (Participant 1). Well when we make the CD of course you bond (Participant 2). Another athlete mentioned how the creation of the playlist maintains team bonding when listening to the playlist before a game: When the music is going and you listen oh did you put my song on there? You listen for it and then I don t know. It just makes it more of a team building thing just because everybody is a part of it. (Participant 3). The process of making the playlist and actually playing it during warm-up was described to increase team bonding. Participants also talked about how you get to know teammates better by making a music playlist: Yeah I think it shows other people s likes, so if you don t know a person as well, um, you can get to know them like by music (Participant 2). Another participant reiterated this fact. So kinda learn more about their taste and stuff like that. And then usually when we get together it s not just making the CD we usually end up joking around and stuff. And we all get a lot closer and like make different memories with each other. (Participant 5) The experience of creating memories through understanding other players musical preferences was powerful. 139

14 Pre-Competition Warm-Up Music One participant described a way in which creating the playlist helps with team bonding when the team captain asks for feedback and allows each team member to have input on the playlist. Trust. It impacted trust with her for the fact that she was willing to open up with us and she was willing with the feedback. She wanted feedback if we like it or not. And I thought that was really cool. And the whole team thought it was really cool. They liked the fact that she did it and then wanted to share it with us before she actually put it on CD for permanent. And so we all got a say in it. We liked that. And so I think that was really good of her (Participant 1). The CD creation as a trust-building process is perceived as being beneficial, especially from a team leader. Other comments from players also shed light on team cohesion. For example: I think as a team, we build that play list, kind of together, we kind of all contributed to the list, we were like, listen to this one, listen to that one, and it kind of like brought us closer together, because that was like our thing. It was all of us into that playlist. Instead of just like one person saying let s just play these songs. So it kind of brought us closer together through that, and while we are all warming up, we can all enjoy it the same way, because it is kind of like a part of each one of us (Participant 7). Another player elaborated, Yeah, it helped us get to know each other a little better. Like this person likes this kind of music, and to see our different likes and dislikes (Participant 8). Each year the process was perceived to be a little different, We have done it differently in the past. The seniors all came together, and we kind of like had a team bonding night. This year we didn t really have time this year (Participant 8). Another athlete gave insight on how this process could bring them together or even rift them apart, It depends on the teams actually, because some teams I could see them fighting about it, but like us, we pretty much do it as a team building thing, like we spent more time together and were able to talk about it (Participant 9). The affective practices of singing and dancing together were discussed once again, Yeah, we ll be singing and dancing. But I think that s as a team coming together. I know when a song comes on I look at someone else and we start singing together. It s kind of like, getting that connection, team bonding kind of thing. (Participant 12) 140

15 Sport Science Review, vol. XXIII, No. 3-4, August 2014 Every player interviewed in this study shared their own perspective on team cohesion, and how the process of creating the CD, singing, and dancing during warm-up brought them together as a team. Self-efficacy, according to Bandura (1997), is an individual s belief in their ability to organize and execute a specific task. Self-efficacy has been identified to be another sub-theme of team cohesion. A mother (Parent Participant 1), who hosted the creation of the playlist, provided insight into how the music creation process impacted cohesion and self-efficacy. The mother mentioned how I think it s good. I didn t think of that but it brought them together and focus on the game. They went from lunch to spending 2.5 hours just doing music for the game (Parent Participant 1). She also noticed how a more talkative group of Juniors and Seniors created the playlist. When asked if any others got input she (Parent Participant 1) replied, I don t think so. They re not loners but they re just kind of quieter. They re not going to be I don t think they gave input. These are the ones that will stand up and make the decisions. This mother brought up an interesting perspective on how personality types, introversion, and extroversion played a role in this process. Performance Effects. Music had a variety of effects on athletes prior to competition. Music most often appeared to enhanced participants perceived performance. At times, music was perceived to potentially inhibit performance. Additionally, participants described how each individual can respond differently to music (individual differences). Enhancement. A performance enhancement (Miners, 2010) is a treatment technique or strategy that provides performance advantages, and improves athletes overall performance. Participant responses depicted performance effects. For instance: My blood gets faster my adrenaline pumps up and I just get in the game and I focus after that (Participant 1). Another player noted, It just gets you mentally and physically focused cause you get an adrenaline rush and then you re like mentally focused on what you have to do (Participant 3). A different athlete corroborated, The faster songs you definitely play harder and faster (Participant 4). A few athletes talked about music creating a mood that led to enhanced performance. For example, We play better when we re having more fun (Participant 5). Participant 9 stated, I would say because it gets me pumped up, and like when you are listening to that loud crazy music before a game, your adrenaline is running, and I think it gets me jumping higher, like I am able to hit it (the ball) harder and stuff, and I think it is that way for everybody, because it gets that adrenaline going. One participant described how the aggressive 141

16 Pre-Competition Warm-Up Music mood that music creates can lead to performance enhancement, Like if it s an intense song I always get really angry. And I just want to hit the ball really really hard. So, and then if it s a slow song I kind of wanna fall asleep. So, having fast songs helps (Participant 6). On the contrary, slow songs were seen as inhibiting performance. Inhibition. Early in this study, an athlete mentioned how they believed a school that they played purposely played music as a performance inhibitor during the warm-up. The researchers thought this was fascinating and began asking other participants about it as well. Participant #10 elaborated on one of the schools that used this tactic, The home team played country music thinking the visiting team would not like it but the visiting team loved it. Another player (Participant 8) detailed how she knows that loud upbeat music makes her play better: Like when I played on a team, my worst game, it was against Meadows, the sound system was really low and quiet, and they played country music, and so I had a really bad game. In my last game, we played against Team A and they played really loud crazy music, and I just like had my best game. Participant 1 gave another clear example of how they use their warm-up music as a performance inhibitor for the other team: There are lyrics that are upbringing and they are very competitive and so sometimes we ll have, like ours starts off with Spartans, now is your time. And it tells us personally that yes it is our time. We need to work hard we do need to work as a team and go out and get what we need to get done. And so the other team hearing that and with the fact that it says Spartans, which, we are the Spartans. It s kind of, what do they call that? It s a threat to the other team. She continued to describe how this segment of the warm-up makes them know that it is their time and it is time to go hard. Some athletes referred to song lyrics that served as a performance inhibitor for the other team. For instance, one song that comes to mind is um what is it called Remember the Name by Fort Minor. That s a song you could use against your opponents, because it s saying you should remember us for beating you or kicking your butt tonight (Participant 2). Although there were a lot of ideas presented about music as a performance inhibitor throughout the study, there were also some warnings given from the participants. Participant #3 cautioned the researchers that there are some pro s and con s if you purposely use distracting music. For example, I was like: what if we were to do that (play slow country music) when they are hitting the ball, like the first like ten minutes play crappy songs and then we 142

17 Sport Science Review, vol. XXIII, No. 3-4, August 2014 go hit. But, then that also has an affect when we play defense cause you want upbeat tempo when you re playing defense too (Participant 3). Using music against your opponent is a relatively new topic; however, the testimonies given by the athletes in this study demonstrate how important further understanding of this may be. Individual Differences. A number of participants described how individuals respond differently to different types of music. People need different kinds of music to get a little more pumped up I guess it just depends on what kind of stuff gets you really hyped up. Cause there are some people, like when we went and there was a country song playing. Like for some people, they don t need a super-fast beat. They just need something that they like and are used to listening to and that just kind of gets them in a good mood to play. So it just kinda depends individually how you need to get pumped up for a game (Participant 5). Another participant described how different elements of the song can be motivating, such as the lyrics versus instrumentals. Like some songs, like the words motivate you, but sometimes it is just like the beat. So it depends on the song (Participant 8). Individuals taste in music differs greatly, just as their responses to different genres or the presence/lack or music does as well. Discussion/Implications In an effort to set the scene and depict the experience of using warmup music to enhance performance, we have described our field experience observing athletes utilizing their warm-up music. The following observations further confirm the perceptions of the athletes in this study: As the players ran onto the court, the music was loud and the tempo was fast. After they ran around the court, they gave each other high fives on their side of the court. Immediately after the high fives, the team came together in a circle and gave a team cheer. As the team practiced hitting drills with partners, the splices of the music were very short. The lyrics went on about having the heart of a champion and transgressed into words about their home, Colorado. There was a lot of instrumental music with interspersed female vocals. The team then transitioned into setting and digging drills with partners. Next, the visiting team takes over the full court, as the team has a one on one digging/bumping drill with the coach. The home team then takes the full court, meanwhile, in the last 143

18 Pre-Competition Warm-Up Music five minutes; the music becomes a little slower (inspirational music, according to 12). The home team ends with serves, and the crowd gets in to the music by singing along with wo oh oh s. The buzzer sounds, the music ends, and the game is played. Athletes have increasingly incorporated music into pre-competition routines and they believe that music positively impacts their performance. Out of the 12 players interviewed, all outlined specific psychological benefits of being able to create and play their own pre-competition warm-up play-lists and CDs. Music and sports performance is a neglected construct in sports coaching research, although coaches perceive music as an instructional strategy that enhances performance (Yeats & Smith, 2011). Some main differences between earlier works in this field (Yeats & Smith) include: Observation of the participants using warm-up music in context (prior to a volleyball match). A much more detailed picture of the specifics of how the musical warmup process impacts performance, both positively and negatively. More details were given on the creation of the warm-up music. The process was detailed, perceptions generally preferred past teams where all the girls got together to form a CD. Perceptions of splicing songs up into smaller parts, and arguments against it were given. Arousal playing a role in motivation Self-Efficacy playing a role in and cohesion Insights into the role of music throughout the game day were fascinating. Music is my life. Using music all day long before and after games The new details from the athletes perspectives give insight into how coaches and athletes can better understand and maximize the warm-up process prior to competition. The increased motivation, detailed in this study, came in the form of giving the volleyball athletes choices of what music to create and play for their precompetition warm-up routine. These choices also impacted effort in a certain direction, which in turn had the potential to be a performance enhancement or a performance inhibitor. The presence of the choices and changed effort allowed the athletes to persist over time. Arousal was also important, and many athletes detailed how they were using the warm-up music process as an arousal-seeking behavior. The arousal of these athletes were observed to be at moderate levels, as there was no discussion about comatose states and panic attacks, which would decrease performance. 144

19 Sport Science Review, vol. XXIII, No. 3-4, August 2014 In regards to the mood theme, athletes in this study detailed perceptions, which were broken down into sub-themes of: enjoyment and happiness; and social facilitation. Athletes detailed how the warm-up music put them in an enjoyable and/or happy mood. They mentioned how the process was fun, enjoyable, exciting, and happy. The determination of the other players noticeably increasing by the warm-up music spread throughout the team, and facilitated social goals. This social facilitation process enabled players to notice each other getting in gear for the game, which helped them get in the zone too. In terms of performance effects, participants made a number of comments which illustrated how music can impact performance. Participants discussed how music can help performance, how it can decrease performance, and how athletes can respond differently to the same song. For the most part, participants made comments and noticed how music enhances their game and helps them to perform better. In fact, all participants made note of how music aids their performance. However, there were comments made about how music can inhibit performance. If the song or genre is undesirable to the athlete, then it can actually lead to decreased performance. Lastly, participants discussed how music can impact individuals differently. A song that enhances performance for one athlete can inhibit performance for another. Finally, athletes discussed how making a warm-up playlist can help to bring teammates together and become more bonded. This cohesive capacity of creating a music playlist not only brought team members together, but also allowed them to get to know one another better. By bringing together everyone s favorite song, each team member got to know a little more about their teammates and the types of musical preferences. Some participants even commented that creating the playlist helped build trust between teammates as team leaders allowed everyone to have a voice and to have input on the playlist. Additionally, trust was built as team captains accepted feedback while creating the playlist. In addition, the act of playing the playlist during warm-ups was also reported to increase team cohesion on game day. A sub-theme of cohesion that also came up was self-efficacy. The mother of one of the team s captains observed the creation of the team playlist. She noted that various people s involvement in the playlist creation may have been impacted by their confidence levels as a team member, and in their self-efficacy for providing input. There are many opportunities for future research in the area of music and sport performance. Research findings have indicated that the perceptions of coaches and athletes show that pre-competition warm-up music can have an impact on their team through motivation, mood, cohesion, and performance effects. Future studies should utilize an experimental design and measure how 145