THE EFFECTS OF PERCEIVED RISKS ON DESTINATION IMAGE AND INTENTION TO REVISIT DISASTER STRICKEN JAPAN: A CONCEPTUAL PAPER

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1 Page 1 of 22 ANZAM 2012 THE EFFECTS OF PERCEIVED RISKS ON DESTINATION IMAGE AND INTENTION TO REVISIT DISASTER STRICKEN JAPAN: A CONCEPTUAL PAPER Siti Aqilah Jahari School of Management Monash University, Sunway Campus, Malaysia sajah2@student.monash.edu Dr. Chew Yin Teng School of Management Monash University, Sunway Campus, Malaysia chew.yin.teng@monash.edu ABSTRACT This study draws new insights on international travel vacation to a disaster-stricken destination. The paper highlights the types of factors of perceived risks (socio-psychological risk, physical risk, financial risk, health risk, disaster risk and radiation risk) that may affect repeat tourists image reformation of the destination (cognitive image, affective image, induced image, organic image, autonomous image and country image). This paper sets forth a conceptual framework, followed by a discussion of its main contributions. Keywords: disaster-stricken destination, radiation risk, perceived risks, destination image, disaster risk

2 ANZAM 2012 Page 2 of 22 INTRODUCTION International tourism has immensely flourished during the last two decades and is expected to thrive further globally (UNWTO 2012). Despite facing recent economy setback, international tourist arrivals still grew over 4% in 2011 (UNWTO 2012) owing to rising disposable income, extensive transportation network, and the opportunity to travel to wider variety of destinations (Echtner & Ritchie 1993). Unfortunately, the tourism industry is also very susceptible to both internal (e.g. crime, sociopolitical instability) and external threats (e.g. war, terrorism, natural disasters, epidemic diseases) which can tarnish the image of the destination (Sonmez, Apostolopoulow & Tarlow 1999). Such a scenario may pose different challenges for destination marketers to implement effective positioning strategies for disaster-stricken tourist destinations resulting from the heightened perceived risks. PERCEIVED RISKS The issue of safety and security associated with destinations has become a pressing concern amongst tourists (Poon & Adams 2000). These uncertainties which have been studied in tourism includes physical risk, financial risk, health risk, time risk, social risk, satisfaction risk, health risk, terrorism risk, political instability risk and psychological risk (e.g. Roehl & Fesenamaier 1992; Sonmez & Graefe 1998b). Recently, the rampant occurrence of both natural and man-made disasters --- epidemic diseases (e.g. SARS, H1N1 avian flu), terror attacks on September 11, 2001 in United States, the 2004 Aceh tsunami triggered by an earthquake in Indian Ocean and the recent Great Eastern earthquake in Japan in March 2011 have all caused a negative impact on global tourism industry. These events often heighten the level of tourist s perceived risk (Roehl & Fesenmaier 1992; So nmez 1998) which in turn may deteriorate the image of the destination as tourist hot spots. In light with risks pertinent to tourism, this paper highlights the importance of perceived risks in altering tourists destination image which in turn may affect the behavioural intention of tourists. 1

3 Page 3 of 22 ANZAM 2012 DESTINATION IMAGE Tourism is a service related industry in which the nature of their products is intangible (Tasci & Gartner 2007). Such intangibility nature of travel products poses difficulty for tourists to evaluate it, thus highlighting the importance of destination image as a close representation of the actual product (MacKay & Fesenmaier 1997). As such, destination images play a vital role in conveying the destinations physical attributes across to tourists (Tasci & Gartner 2007). Since touristic images are largely formed based on perception rather than reality (Gartner 1994), portraying an accurate image is therefore crucial to create positive destination image. In order to promote destinations successfully, destination marketers have to create an appealing image of destination such that each destination has to be uniquely positioned for it to compete against other destinations (Martin & Bosque 2008). Thus, there is a need to understand perceived risk and its potential impact on destination image which in turn may affect tourist behavioural intentions. Hence, the purpose of this study is to propose and develop argument for the need to examine the relationship between perceived risks and destination image which in turn may affect revisit intention of repeat visitors to Japan. Table 1 illustrates the definition of different types of destination image. Each component of destination image is defined differently and captures various aspects of destination image. Hence, in order to contribute meaningfully in the area of destination image, it is worthy to examine the potential effect of each component in affecting intention to revisit. This will be further exemplified in the following section. A MODEL OF PERCEIVED RISKS, DESTINATION IMAGE AND REVISIT INTENTION Disaster risk is defined as function of hazard and vulnerability (Carter 1991). Disaster risk has largely been researched within the domain of disaster management response (Shook 1997; Ren 2000; Ritchie 2004; Tsai & Chen 2010), environmental hazards (Shook 1997; Klein, Nicholls & Thomalla 2003) and disaster prevention and recovery (Denis 1995; Paton 2000). Within the context of tourism studies however, disaster risk has recently emerged as a high profile issue only in the late 90s. Previously, most 2

4 ANZAM 2012 Page 4 of 22 scholars have usually employed conventional risks (e.g. financial, time, equipment, physical, etc) in assessing destination perceived risk. Recently, several studies examining disaster risk has only illuminated as a result of frequent occurrences of natural disasters witnessed during the last decade (i.e. Floyd & Gray 2004; Floyd et al. 2004; Law 2006; Kozak, Crotts & Law 2007; Park & Reisinger 2010). Most of these studies have centred their study on examining its impact on perceived travel risk and travel intention (i.e. Floyd & Gray 2004; Floyd, Gibson, Gray & Brijesh 2004; Law 2006). Interestingly, only Lehto, Douglas and Park (2008) have examined the impact of disaster risk on destination image, indicating the lack of research in this area. They explored how tourists emotions correlate with affective reactions before and after a natural disaster. Empirical evidence revealed that events of natural disaster have significant influence on tourists affective (feelings) responses and in turn develop negative destination image (Lehto et al. 2008). In a similar vein, disasters with unprecedented magnitude may impede the flow of inbound tourism (Lehto et al. 2008), thus suggesting that incidences of natural disasters exacerbate the level of perceived risk. The travel avoidance behaviour by tourists thus suggests that tourists may have developed negative images of destination following a major disaster. Since a concrete relationship between disaster risk and destination affective image has been ascertained, the following proposition thus intends to capture how disaster risk affect other components of destination image. Thus, this leads to the proposition below. Proposition 1: Disaster risk affects destination image, namely (a) cognitive image, (b) affective image, (c) organic image, (d) induced image, (e) autonomous image, and (f) country image. Disasters are very likely to cause massive destruction to physical environment, natural environment and possibly striking off human population (Ward 1994). Events of natural disaster that occur in an unprecedented magnitude can rapidly accelerate from a disaster to crisis situation (Lehto et al. 2008). For instance, infectious disease is likely to emerge following a major disaster (Aghababian & Teuscher 1992), 3

5 Page 5 of 22 ANZAM 2012 triggering a health crisis for the affected country. As such, managing the post-mortem crisis of a disaster poses a great challenge for tourism disaster management to mitigate (Faulkner & Vikulov 2001). In the case of Japan, the earthquake had triggered off tsunami which had consequently affected its Fukushima Nuclear Plant. Similar to health crisis, the radiation leakage has placed Japan into radiation crisis. In this manner, radiation risk is a side-effect generated as a result of natural disaster. Hence, it is difficult to anticipate the impact of natural disaster. The risk of radiation is uncommonly experienced with tourist destination. Past literature on image studies or perceived risks has yet to discuss the implication of radiation risk on tourist destination. Previous radiation risk that had occurred was dated back in 1986, Chernobyl incident (Sjoberg & Sjoberg 1990). According to Sjoberg and Sjoberg (1990), the impact of radiation exposure can potentially threaten the health of nation. Health consequences stemming from high levels of radiation exposure ranges from nausea, vomiting, reddening of the skin, bleeding gums, hair loss and in extreme cases cancer, health disorder to the nervous and sensory organs (Gay 2011). In the context of tourism, the level of radiation could possibly cause a change in induced image. Portrayals of promotional materials may not necessarily reveal the facts on radiation risk or reflect the actual situation of the destination. Such contradiction of information may reduce tourists trust towards induced images, indicating that radiation risk could cause a change in induced image. Given that radiation risk has not been studied in image studies or in destination perceived risk literature, it would be interesting to explore the effects of radiation risk. Thus, this leads to the following proposition: Proposition 2: Radiation risk affects destination image, namely (a) cognitive image, (b) affective image, (c) organic image, (d) induced image, (e) autonomous image, and (f) country image. 4

6 ANZAM 2012 Page 6 of 22 Socio-psychological Risk The concept of socio-psychological risk has been described as complex, intricate and intimately related to motivation factors (Mitchell 1999). It is defined as likelihood that the purchase will not reflect self-image and may affect others opinion of consumers (Roehl & Fesenmaier 1992). In consumer behaviour literature, scholars have examined how socio-psychological factors influence an individual in the purchase of consumer products. These factors comprises of, but not limited to, values, personality and lifestyle (Beerli & Martin 2004a). Fitzmaurice and Comegys (2006) found that many consumers indulge in special occasion events with the goal of seeking status since consuming the product will confer high status and build social presence. In a similar vein, Shukla (2010) supports the contention that sociopsychological factors are crucial in influencing consumption of branded and prestigious goods. This is because consumers may feel the need to purchase branded items in order to conform to social standards (Shukla 2010). These illustrations thus demonstrate the importance of how personal factors (i.e. values, personality, lifestyle) of an individual interact (Funk & Brunn 2007). Drawing from marketing theory into tourism context, socio-psychological risk may arise from the incompatibility of vacation destination with self-image and reference group reactions towards the choice of destination (Reichel, Fuchs & Uriely 2009). Similar to purchase of branded goods and services, choosing an appropriate vacation destination that coincides with tourist s self-image is vital in determining choice of destination (Murphy, Benckendorff & Moscardo 2007). For instance, expensive destinations are typically visited by tourists who are status-conscious (Sirgy & Su 2000). Sirgy and Su (2000) explored the issue of self-congruity; defined as the match or mismatch between destination visitor image and tourist s self image. They asserted that a greater match between destination visitors image and tourist s self-image is more likely to induce favourable attitude towards visiting the destination. This suggests that positive destination image could have possibly been mould following the match of images such that desired holiday experience could be attained. In a similar vein, Murphy et al. (2007) investigated the emotional relationship between tourists perceived self image and destination brand 5

7 Page 7 of 22 ANZAM 2012 personality. Empirical evidence revealed that tourists who are able to associate well between destination and its branding personality exude high congruity level between tourists self-image and destination perceived image (Murphy et al. 2007). This suggests that high level of congruity may facilitate in the formation of affective (feeling) destination image. Hence, it is arguable to state that incompatibility of vacation destination and disapproval of reference group can induce a change or facilitate the reformation of destination perceived image. Deriving from all of the above findings, it is argued that sociopsychological risk may potentially influence destination image. Proposition 3: Socio-psychological risk affects destination image, namely (a) cognitive image, (b) affective image, (c) organic image, (d) induced image, (e) autonomous image, and (f) country image. Physical Risk Physical risk refers to the likelihood of encountering physical danger, injury or sickness while on vacation (Roehl & Fesenmaier 1992). According to Reisinger & Mavondo (2005), physical safety of a destination is a primary condition that needs to be established. The inability of destination to provide safe environment would most likely deter tourists away from visiting destination (Sonmez & Graefe 1998a). This is because tourists would perceive higher destination risk for places with high physical risk (Hsu & Lin 2006). As such, travelers perceive physical risk as serious consequence when travelling. Since physical risk can significantly influence travelers subjective perception of the destination (Hsu & Lin 2006), this suggests that destination with high physical risk confer higher overall perceived travel risk. An elevation of perceived travel risk would therefore create a negative image of the destination. In the context of tourism in Japan, Japan receives 20 per cent of the earthquakes in the world and the recent massive earthquake in March 2011 was accompanied with large scale tsunami that led to unavoidable casualties. Coupled with the recent massive earthquake and tsunami in 2011, Japan may be perceived as a country with a high physical risk, which in turn may unfavourably affect country image and destination image that further deter tourists away. For instance, cognitive, affective and organic images of repeat 6

8 ANZAM 2012 Page 8 of 22 tourists may change after obtaining knowledge and viewing clips of tsunami and earthquake in the Great Eastern Earthquake as a result of the physical damages and casualties. The following proposition is thus developed. Proposition 4: Physical risk affects destination image, namely (a) cognitive image, (b) affective image, (c) organic image, (d) induced image, (e) autonomous image, and (f) country image Financial Risk Vacation travel has been regarded as high purchase product (service) that entails considerable financial commitment (Gitelson & Crompton 1984; Maser & Weiermaier 1998). This indicates that purchase of expensive items may expose prospective tourists to financial risk; defined as likelihood that vacation is unable to provide value for money spent (Roehl & Fesenmaier 1992). Empirical evidence has consistently revealed that financial risk is highly associated with international travel (Cheron & Ritchie 1982; Roehl & Fesenmaier 1992; Floyd et al. 2004; Reisinger & Mavondo 2005). Reisigner and Mavondo (2005) asserted that financial risk could arise from unanticipated trip interruptions or cancellations. An immediate impact arising from earthquakes would cause massive destruction to physical infrastructure such that accessibility to transportation services that may result in tourists being stranded or financial services may be limited. Tourists who are caught in such situation are prone to lose their personal belongings and valued possessions, reflecting an increase in financial risk. Additionally, the destruction to physical infrastructure may lead to flight cancellation, thus restricting their mobility to travel out of the affected area and longer unintended stay that reflect additional financial cost. In a similar vein, Hsu and Lin (2006) argued that financial risk could arise as a result of physical risk. Additional expenses may be incurred if travelers acquire an injury during their vacation trip (Hsu & Lin 2006). In this respect, implication of tourists being exposed to radiation during vacation could result in long term health issues, implying that additional expenses is required to finance the treatment in the long run. Thus, concurring 7

9 Page 9 of 22 ANZAM 2012 with Gitelson and Crompton s (1984) finding, vacation travel is indeed a product with high financial risk. In the context of Japan, it is difficult to anticipate the plausible consequences arising from Great Eastern Earthquake. Thus, given that Japan is an expensive tourist destination, frequent unanticipated events of natural disasters may place pressure on tourists financial stability. Tourists may have to spend more than anticipated (Gitelson & Crompton 1984), suggesting that the perceived benefits derived during their vacation trip may be less than expected. Japan may then be perceived as a country with high financial risk, which may in turn deteriorate the country image and destination image. For repeat tourists, organic and affective images which were formerly developed may change as a result of high financial risk. Hence, the following proposition is thus proposed. Proposition 5: Financial risk affects destination image, namely (a) cognitive image, (b) affective image, (c) organic image, (d) induced image, (e) autonomous image, and (f) country image. Health Risk The issue of health concerns governing international travel has only emerged in the late 90s. Health related risks such as outbreak of epidemic diseases (e.g. Bird Flu, SARS, H5N1 Avian flu), HIV, malaria, food poisoning as a result of poor access to hygienic food and clean water demonstrate the potential health risks which tourists are susceptible to. With increasing health problems surfacing recently, tourists are increasingly concern with health and safety issues (Page 2009). Sonmez & Graefe (1998a, 1998b) pioneered the study of examining health, political instability and terrorism risks associated with international travel. They found that health risk emerged as a significant predictor to international travel. Respondents who associate health risk with destination are less likely to travel overseas (Sonmez & Graefe 1998a). Congruent to Sonmez and Graefe s (1998a) findings, Reisinger and Mavondo (2005) explored the relationship between perceived travel risk, safety, anxiety and travel intentions and empirically found that health risk is negatively related to safety perception. In other words, the higher the health risk associated with a destination, the higher destination perceived risk. Such travel avoidance 8

10 ANZAM 2012 Page 10 of 22 behaviour of tourists thus indicates that tourists may develop negative image as a result of heightened perceived health risk. In an experimental study, Sirakaya, Shephard, and McLelland (1997) explored the effects of perpetual changes in terms of the safety and security issues of a destination. Their study demonstrated that in light with new information received regarding destination s safety, security and health problems, prospective tourists may eliminate the destination with elevated perceived risks from their list of alternatives. Based on empirical findings above, the perception of health appears to account greatly for perception of safety and security issues of the destination. In the case of Japan, radiation leakage can seep through soil, released into the atmosphere and contaminate river (Sjoberg & Sjoberg 1990). Thus, the severity of health issues extends to contamination of safe water, food chain and air quality. Experts argued that Tokyo Electric Power (TEPCO) may face difficulties containing the radiation leakage at Fukushima Nuclear Plant (Gay, 2011), suggesting that it is beyond human control to mitigate the extent of damages. Thus, previously held organic images of repeat visitors may change as a result of radiation. The potential exposure to health risk may eventually influence affective image of Japan. Although Japan has positioned itself as a country with high quality food (Jussaume & Judson 1992), the recent radiation leakage may eventually tarnish their reputation. The recent release of contaminated beef from Fukushima itself was sufficient to create food scare among Japanese nation. It would not be uncommon for foreign travelers to perceive similar health risk. As such, the perpetual changes in health related issues in Japan may induce a change in destination image. Hence, it is proposed that the effects of health risk on destination image should be explored. Proposition 6: Health risk affects destination image, namely (a) cognitive image, (b) affective image, (c) organic image, (d) induced image, (e) autonomous image, and (f) country image. Motivation In marketing literature, MacInnis and Jaworski (1989) have examined the importance of motivation, opportunity and ability (hereafter MOA) model in processing information of visual images on 9

11 Page 11 of 22 ANZAM 2012 advertisement based on brands and empirically found that MOA mediates the relationship between behavioural outcomes and communication outcomes. The model suggests that MOA are antecedents of consumer behaviour (MacInnis & Jaworski 1989). Similar to the role of an advertisement, destination image is also a source of information that elicits useful information cues by accentuating destination attractive attributes (Kim & Perdue 2011). Applying the MOA theory, having a high motivation may engage an individual to process images more willingly (MacInnis & Jaworski 1989). When processing information, the images of the destination do not only serve as motivating forces but they also mediate emotional experiences, assessments and behavioural intentions (Goosens 2000). Since images are intricately intertwined with emotions, images depicting a desirable future event can stimulate prospective tourists to act upon it (Goosens 2000). Destination image and its attractive attributes thus represent a pull factor to entice prospective tourists to visit (Mansfeld 1992). On the other hand, socio-psychological motivation is regarded as a push factor which leads to decision to travel (Crompton 1979). People usually travel for two basic reasons, (1) to escape from the daily routine from their place of residence and (2) to garner status recognition from others (Dann 1977). Once the inner desire and needs are fulfilled, it may induce an individual to travel (Dann 1977). Thus, when destination image ( pull factor) and socio-psychological motivation ( push factor) coincides, the concept of self-congruity are then matched (Hung & Petrick 2012). Prospective tourists may then decide to travel. Opportunity is the second antecedent of the MOA model. To fit the tourism context, Nadirova and Jackson (2000) have modified the definition of opportunity which was initially developed by MacInnis and Jaworski (1989) and refer it as the extent to which circumstances are favourable enough for an individual to perform behaviour (Nadirova & Jackson 2000). In tourism, the lack of travel opportunity may arise as a result of travel constraints. These constraints refer to factors hindering continued travel, causing inability to travel, and thereby resulting in failure to sustain or increase travel frequency (Nadirova & Jackson 2000). For a disaster stricken destination, the existence of travel constraints may 10

12 ANZAM 2012 Page 12 of 22 diminish travel opportunities that are desired by prospective tourists behaviour. One year following The Great Eastern Japan earthquake, the rebuilding progress along the coastal area of Tohoku may not have the facilities equipped similar to previous establishment before the disaster. For instance, nuclear plants have been actively shut down by the Japanese government, which implies that there is a high chance that hotels and theme parks are very prone to power cuts (McCurry 2012). Rationing of electric power was carried out whereby temperature of air conditioning was restricted at 28 degree Celcius and Toyota has had to close their manufacturing during some weekdays to enable sufficient electric power for Disneyland to operate in the weekends. Such structural constraints thus reflect the lack of functional congruity between a prospective tourists ideal concept of a destination and the actual destination attributes. As such, an individual may feel restrained from intending to travel (Hubbard & Mannell 2001). Hence, destination image depicting undesirable events may diminish prospective tourists motivation to travel. Ability is the final component for the MOA model. The ability to execute a particular behaviour can be explained by self-efficacy theory, defined as the perceived capability of an individual to perform a behaviour (Bandura 1977). The theory asserts that an individual who has high self-confidence can perform an action leading to a desirable outcome (Hung & Petrick 2012). Hung and Petrick (2012) argued that in a situation where an individual is subjected to certain travel constraints, the role of self-efficacy may be able to confront or overcome it. In other words, an individual can reach a compromise by negotiating a constraint, thus inducing a desirable travel intention (Hung & Petrick 2012). For instance, although the autonomous images presented by media reflects the level of travel constraints that prospective tourists may encounter, repeat visitors with familiarity to previously visited destination can adopt different risk reduction strategies to minimise travel constraints. Unlike prospective tourists that may assume that Japan as a whole is unsafe for travel due to radiation risk, repeat visitors who are familiar with Japan may choose to avoid travelling to the Eastern part of Japan but may be more receptive to travel to other parts of Japan. Such a compromise can be explained by the self-confidence level of an individual. Thus, travel propensity can be explained by MOA theory. 11

13 Page 13 of 22 ANZAM 2012 In this manner, the cognitive image of Japan as a land of striking scenic and natural beauty, the affective image of Japan developed from previous tourism experiences characterized with feelings of pleasure, arousal and satisfaction (Orth et al 2011), the organic image of previously held images of Japan, the induced image of Japan as showcased on promotional materials by travel agencies, the autonomous image of Japan as depicted by mass media, the country image of Japan as a futuristic and high technological country equipped with nuclear plants, may or may not tarnish the image of Japan as a vacation destination. Thus, given the distinct coverage that each destination image component measures, it would be interesting to investigate how each component plays a crucial role in motivating or demotivating tourists, particularly repeat visitors, to revisit a disaster stricken destination. The following is thus proposed. Proposition 7: Destination image, namely (a) cognitive image, (b) affective image, (c) organic image, (d) induced image, (e) autonomous image, and (f) country image, affects motivation to revisit. CONTRIBUTIONS This paper attempts to make important contributions in several ways. Firstly, the conceptual model bridges the research gap between perceived risks literature and destination image literature in tourism by considering perceived risks as potential influences in altering the image of a destination. Unfortunately, past literature on destination image has yet to integrate destination perceived risk in a single study despite earlier acknowledgement of its importance and potential impact on destination image (Lepp, Gibson & Lane 2011; Chi & Qu 2008). The two literatures, both empirically and theoretically, have evolved separately as two independent disciplines of research in tourism studies. While several scholars have recently proposed for the convergence of perceived risk and destination image literatures (Gibson, Qi & Zhang 2009; Lepp, Gibson & Lane 2011), they do not recommend a model or test the relationship; nor do they explore the theoretical linkages underpinning the influence of perceived risk on destination image. 12

14 ANZAM 2012 Page 14 of 22 Thus, this paper attempts to bridge an important research gap between these two fields, namely perceived risks and destination image literature. Secondly, in light of the recent radiation exposure in Japan, the issue that leaves behind prolonged negative effects on various aspects of the ecosystem has raised concerns with regards to safety level towards travelling to Japan. Within the context of perceived risk literature, past studies has yet to address tourists perception of radiation risk. Hence, considering that there are several short-term and long-term potential effects associated with radiation exposure, this paper incorporates a newly perceived risk - radiation risk, when considering tourists risk perception of Japan as a travel destination. Thirdly, past research has been inconclusive and inadequate in their discussion of destination image. Components of destination image have been scatteredly discussed within the framework of cognitive-affective images (e.g. Baloglu & McCleary 1999) or induced-cognitive images (e.g. Fakeye & Crompton 1999) or autonomous image (e.g. Gartner 1994) or country image (e.g. Martin & Eroglu 2008). Thus, by collectively examining different aspects of destination image, this paper attempts to understand the potential strength of each component in influencing repeat tourists intention to revisit a disaster stricken destination. Fourthly, this paper focuses on examining tourist s perception in the context of a disaster-stricken destination. Past studies have heavily focused on risk perception towards leisure destinations that are not risky (i.e. Roehl & Fesenmaier 1992; Sirakaya et al. 1997; Sonmez & Graefe 1998a). Hence, this calls for study on risky destination that is disaster-stricken in nature as a departure from the much covered studies on non-disaster stricken or non-risky area. To conclude, several marketing strategies can be suggested in an effort to revive Japan inbound tourism. For instance, should a negative image still persists and is strongly associated with Japan, induced images promoting attractive attributes of Japan (Gertner & Kotler 2004) in sync with lifestyle desired by prospective repeat tourists (Gross & Brown 2006) can be used to reverse an unfavourable image (Gertner & Kotler 2004), thus removing the negative association with Japan. 13

15 Page 15 of 22 ANZAM 2012 Appendix Figure 1: Suggested framework in integrating perceived risk Perceived Risks (1) Socio Psychological Risk (2) Physical Risk (3) Financial Risk (4) Health Risk (5) Disaster Risk (6) Radiation Risk Destination Image (1) Cognitive Images (2) Affective Images (3) Organic Images (4) Induced Images (5) Autonomous Images (6) Country Images Outcome (1) Motivation to revisit Table 1: Definition of different types of destination image Definition: Types of Destination Image Cognitive Image Affective Image refers to individual s own knowledge and beliefs and how individual perceive in terms of natural, infrastructure, social and cultural aspects of a destination (Lepp Gibson Lane 2011) refers to images that evoke feelings or a sense of attachment to a place (Beerli & Martin 2004) Induced Image refers to promotional materials in the absence of actual visitation (Gartner 1994) Organic Image constitutes of non-commercial information sources which include actual visitation and word-of-mouth (Gartner 1994) Autonomous Image refers to unbiased representation of destination such as news report and popular culture (Gartner 1994) Country Image refers to stereotype or prejudice perception of the country (Martin & Eroglu 1993) 14

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