JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL ACADEMIC RESEARCH FOR MULTIDISCIPLINARY Impact Factor 1.625, ISSN: , Volume 3, Issue 8, September 2015

Transcription

1 DERMATOGLYPHICS: AN INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL REVIEW ABSTRACT JENNIFER SIMON* NIDHI** *Department of Zoology, M.D. University, Rohtak, Haryana, India **Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, G.J.U. Hisar, Haryana, India Dermatoglyphics is the scientific study of fingerprints, lines, mounts, and shapes of hands. Fingerprint identification is the method of identification using the impressions made by the minute ridge formations or patterns found on the fingertips. It is interesting and full of advantage that no two persons have exactly the same arrangement of ridge ptterns & fingerprints remains unchanged throughout for life. The secretions of various chemicals and their metabolites remain as the residues on the fingerprints which can be detected and used for the forensic purposes. In the modern times, fingerprints are considered to be the best and fastest method for biometric identification at various academic, professional and research institutes. So, fingerprints offer a precise means of individual identification. Fingerprints can be found on practically any solid surface, including living as well non-living surfaces. The Henry Classification System has been a highly influential force in the formation of current AFIS technology (Automated Fingerprint Identification System). KEYWORDS: Fingerprints, identification, impressions. 1. INTRODUCTION An impression of the friction ridges of all part of the finger is called fingerprint. A friction ridge is a raised portion of the epidermis on the fingers and the palmer skin, which might be consisted of one or more connected ridge units of friction ridge skin. The natural secretions from the glands present in friction ridge skin causes the formation of fingerprint or they may be made by ink or other contaminants transferred from the peaks of friction skin ridges to a relatively smooth surface. Epidermal skin of fingers, toes and the palm of the hand or the sole of the foot, consist of one or more connected ridge units of friction ridge skin which we call them sometimes as "epidermal ridges". It is quite cheap, easy and accurate up to satisfiability to implement fingerprint recognition system. Now a days, it has been widely used in both civilian and forensic applications. Fingerprint-based biometrics is the most proven technique and has the largest market shares as compared with other biometrics features. Not only the energy consumption 178

2 by such systems is too less, but also it is faster than other techniques Fingerprinting is the most cost effective method of suspect identification. The fingers of a person contain small ridges which are helpful in making a grip over diverse kind of objects. The pattern of these ridges is although genetically determined, these develop during the child s embryonic development in the mother s womb. As the foetus stretches or bends his/her fingers, stretching the skin, the ridges form or stop forming with the tension of the skin. The ridges form a pattern that is unique to each individual. Those ridges contain sweat pores from which salts and oils are excreted. Latent fingerprints are formed when the oils is left on a surface. Various methods have been tried by the individuals to annihilate or remove their fingerprints including eroding or trying to rub off their fingerprints, trying to dissolve their fingerprints with strong acids, burning the fingers, covering their fingertips with superglue, and even having doctors transplant skin from one finger to another but generally these methods have been unsuccessful. Skin transplantation leaves scars which are revealing signs of attempts to change fingerprints. In the case where fingerprints on a body are badly scared or deteriorated, the criminalist may have to resort to the pattern of sweat pores in comparing the fingerprints to those in a database. The two underlying premises of fingerprint identification are uniqueness and persistence (permanence). To date, no two people have ever been found to have the same fingerprints including identical twins. Even the same person does possess the same fingerprint on multiple fingers. Persistence, also referred to as permanence, is the principle that a person s fingerprints remain essentially unchanged throughout their lifetime. As new skin cells form, they remain cemented in the existing friction ridge and furrow pattern. In fact, many people have conducted research that confirms this persistency by recording the same fingerprints over decades and observing that the features remain the same. Even attempts to remove or damage one s fingerprints will be thwarted when the new skin grows, unless the damage is extremely deep, in which case, the new arrangement caused by the damage will now persist and is also unique. 2. WHEN AND HOW IS FINGERPRINT ANALYSIS USED? Fingerprints can be used at the instances when a thief s fingerprints may be found on any household object, a broken window pane is having the fingerprints of a burglar, A murderer has left fingerprints on the victim s skin, robbery notes are having bank robber s fingerprints, a murder weapon is having the fingerprints of killer, in providing biometric 179

3 security (for example, to control access to secure areas or systems) and identifying amnesia victims and unknown deceased (such as victims of major disasters, if their fingerprints are on file) 3. COLLECTING LATENT PRINTS One of the most common methods for discovering and collecting latent fingerprints is by dusting a smooth or nonporous surface with fingerprint powder (black granular, aluminium flake, black magnetic, etc.). If any prints appear, they are photographed as mentioned above and a clear adhesive tape is used then to lift them from the surface. The lifting tape is then placed on a latent lift card to preserve the print. However, fingerprint powders can contaminate the evidence and ruin the opportunity to perform other techniques that could turn up a hidden print or additional information. Therefore, investigators may examine the area with an alternate light source or apply cyanoacrylate (super glue) before using powders. 4. COLLECTING PATENT PRINTS Patent prints are collected using photography. These prints are photographed by an expert in high resolution with a forensic measurement scale. Investigators can improve the quality of the images by using low angle or alternate light sources and/or certain chemicals or dyes during photography, but this is usually not necessary. 4.1 CYANOACRYLATE: Investigators often perform cyanoacrylate (superglue) processing, or fuming, of a surface before applying powders or dye stains. This process, typically performed on nonporous surfaces, involves exposing the object to cyanoacrylate vapours. The vapours (fumes) will adhere to any prints present on the object allowing them to be viewed with oblique ambient light or a white light source. 4.2 ALTERNATE LIGHT SOURCE (ALS): An alternate light source is used by the investigators to examine doors, doorknobs, windows, railings, etc. Some examples are laser or LED devices that emit a particular wavelength, or spectrum of light. Some devices have different filters to provide a variety of spectra that can be photographed or further processed with powders or dye stains. For example, investigators may use a blue light with an orange filter to find latent prints on desks, 180

4 chairs, computer equipment or other objects. Using a fluorescent dye stain and an orange alternate light source helps this latent print appear clearly so that it can be documented. (Courtesy of Scott Campbell, Ron Smith & Associates). 4.3 CHEMICAL DEVELOPERS: Porous surfaces such as paper are typically processed with chemicals, including ninhydrin and physical developer, to reveal latent fingerprints. These chemicals react with specific components of latent print residue, such as amino acids and inorganic salts. Ninhydrin causes prints to turn a purple colour, which makes them easily photographed. DFO (1,2- diazafluoren-9-one) is another chemical used to locate latent fingerprints on porous surfaces; it causes fingerprints to fluoresce, or glow, when they are illuminated by blue green light. 5. ANALYSIS IS CONDUCTE BY WHOM? Various local, state and national fingerprint databases are searched by computerized systems for potential matches which provide a value indicating how close the match is, based on the algorithm used to perform the search. Final decision is made by fingerprint examiners after examining the potential matches. Fingerprint examinations may be conducted by forensic scientists, technicians or police officers; however, these authorities examiner should have the proper training and experience to perform the task. 6. VARIOUS TYPES OF FINGERPRINTS A. ARCHES Arches are the simplest type of fingerprints that are formed by ridges that enter on one side of the print and exit on the other. No deltas are present. These are least common of three general patterns. Ridges enter one side of pattern and exit another. Plain arches form wavelike pattern while the tented arches form sharp spike. B. LOOPS These are most common type. Loops must have one delta and one or more ridges that enter and leave on the same side. These patterns are named for their positions related to the radius and ulna bones, i.e. the bone the loop opening is facing towards. Ridges enter one side and exit same side. Ulnar loop opens toward little finger while Radial loop opens toward thumb. 181

5 C. WHORLS In whorls, ridges recover in circular manner and at least one ridge make a complete circle around point of core. They also have at least two deltas. If a print has more than two deltas, it is most likely an accidental. Arch Loop Whorl 7. REVIEW Identity is a set of physical characteristics, functional or psychic, normal or pathological that defines an individual. Recently, there has been an increased interest in biometric technologies that is human identification based on one's individual features. The various identification data used are finger-prints, handwriting, bite marks, DNA fingerprinting etc. Fingerprints are constant and individualistic and form the most reliable criteria for identification [1], [2]. Fingerprint patterns are genotypically determined and remain unchanged from birth till death [3]. The general pattern taken by the ridges seems to be dependent on following interrelated factors [4], [5], [6], [7] - Shape (symmetry) and size of the volar pads (Penrose hypothesized that the flow of the ridges follows the lines of curvature of the skin on the volar pad [8]; research in mathematical biology confirmed this hypothesis [9], [10], [11] Timing between the regression of the volar pads and the onset of primary ridge formation, Relative speed of the three development fronts and Bone morphology [12]. It is well documented that the general pattern taken by ridges is indirectly inherited [13]. Relative frequencies of general pattern types have been extensively studied in various populations [14] and in relation to numerous chromosomal deficiencies and diseases [15], [16], [17], [18], [19]. This research area (often without a direct relationship to forensic science) is named dermatoglyphics. The general pattern taken by the ridges offers some selectivity, but the main contribution to selectivity stems at this stage from the configuration of the minutiæ (types and relative position). 182

6 Okajima studied the occurrence of basic minutiæ on prints from twins in various populations and noted higher correlations on the number of minutiæ for monozygotic twins as opposed to dizygotic twins. More minutiæ are observed on prints from males compared with prints from females, but no bilateral difference (right vs. left) was observed [20],[21]. Correlations between the presence or absence of pattern area and number of minutiæ have also been investigated [22], [23], [24], [25], [26]. Dankmeijer and coworkers [27] confirmed that the number of minutiæ was correlated to the finger number and pattern type, but no bilateral difference was noted. From these results, it appears that the number of minutiæ is a hereditary trait. Dermatoglyphic studies on the various types of minutiæ are limited, but they tend to show that the frequency of bifurcation (forks) depends on the sex and the digit number, hence suggesting the existence of a genetic role [28],[29]. However, the number of minutiæ tends to be uncorrelated to the frequency of bifurcations (forks) [30],[31]. Incipient (called also secondary or subsidiary [32],[33],[34],[35],[36] ridges follow the same development process but, due to timing constraints, remain only partially developed. Although these ridges received some attention from an anthropological perspective [37], it has been shown recently that, during the course of a lifetime, new incipient ridges can develop (although never disappear). It is postulated that this development corresponds to a compensation for the degenerative change (loss of sensitivity) that occurs with age or activity [38]. It has been found that these ridges are associated with Meissner corpuscles. Flexion creases also share the same principles of morphogenesis [39], [40], [41]. Their development starts between 7 and 9 weeks EGA. The number of documented case reports discussing the assessment of differences in a comparison is limited [42], [43], [44]. The ability to distinguish between distortion and dissimilarity is essential and relies mainly on the examiner s experience [45]. In fact, consideration of the clarity of the mark dictates the level of tolerance defined during the analysis process. The greater the clarity, the lower is the tolerance, and vice versa. An ideal way of gathering reliable experience for interpreting differences is through the setting up of controlled experiments where marks of known donors are deposited and revealed under various conditions. The study of such sets allows a calibration of the examiner and could even lead to an assessment of the examiner s proficiency. Exclusion decisions are obvious deductions when, for example, the dissimilarity at level 1 or level 2 is unambiguous thanks to a mark of excellent clarity. However, we should keep in mind the possibility of a 183

7 wrong exclusion due to a hasty examination (without a proper analysis phase) focused on level 1 detail [46]. As soon as the mark lacks clarity, and distortion induces possible differences at all levels, the assessment is much more difficult. Due to the popular belief that a wrong exclusion is more acceptable than a wrong identification, the exclusion process has received little attention. As Bertillon [47], [48] rightly pointed out, the examiner should in fact be more focused on dissimilarities than on concordances. When no significant differences (the concept of significant being defined by the tolerances obtained from the analysis stage) have been noted between the mark and the print. The concept of identification is closely related to the selectivity of the features at the various levels, taking into account the level of tolerance set initially. The term Identification as used here generally denotes individualization. The first rules establishing the minimum number of minutiæ necessary for fingermark identification can be attributed to the famous Frenchman Edmond Locard [49], [50],[51],[52],[53]. The numerical standard represents a lower limit; above this value, the identification is beyond doubt regardless of the type of minutiæ that are discerned. The interpretation of the concept of a numerical standard may vary from agency to agency (or even from examiner to examiner), as illustrated by a few examples based on Almog [54],[55],[56],[57],[58],[59],[60] a recent review by Interpol (Interpol 1995), and an updated table published in Fingerprint World [61],[62],[63],[64],[65],[66],[67],[68]. 8. HISTORY OF FINGERPRINTING Bricks from ancient city in Jericho were discovered with thumbprints of bricklayer which are believed to be dated back 7000 BC. Fingerprints were used in commercial dealings in Babylon dated back BC. In ancient times in Babylon, fingerprints were used on clay tablets for trade transactions. Chinese used fingerprints to sign legal documents & to seal contracts as far back AD and thumb prints were found on clay seals. Picture writing of a hand with ridge patterns was discovered in Nova Scotia. In 14th century Persia, different official papers had fingerprints (impressions), and one government official, a doctor, observed that no two fingerprints were exactly alike. In earlier civilizations, branding and even maiming (to deprive of the use of some part of the body by wounding/injury or the like; cripple) were used to mark the criminal for what he was. The Romans tattooed to identify. More recently, law enforcement officers with extraordinary 184

8 visual memories, so-called "camera eyes," identified old offenders by sight. Photography lessened the burden on memory but was not the answer to the criminal identification problem. 9. IMPORTANT PEOPLE IN FINGERPRINTING HISTORY Dr. Nehemiah (1684) was a physician and plant morphologist and first pioneer to study and described epidermal ridge, furrows and their arrangement on hands and feet. Marcello Malpighi (1686) was a professor of anatomy at the University of Bologna. He observed the ridges, spirals and loops in fingerprints. A layer of skin- "Malpighi" layer, was named after him, which is approximately 1.8mm thick. Sir William Hershel (1856) is credited with first known official use of fingerprints. He was a British chief administrative officer of Hoogly district of West Bengal, India. Herschel made it compulsory to keep the prints of the right Index and Middle fingers along with signatures on every contract made with the locals. Dr. Henry Faulds (1880) was a British Surgeon-Superintendent of Tsukiji Hospital in Tokyo, Japan, in 1870's. He was attracted by finger marks on specimens of "prehistoric" pottery and started the study of "skin-furrows". Faulds designed a system of classification in He explained that skin ridge patterns could be important in identification work in Henry s system has been followed worldwide with minor regional variations. Gilbert Thompson (1882) of the U.S. Geological Survey in New Mexico, used his own fingerprints on a document to prevent forgery for the first time in the United States. Juan Vucetich (1892) is credited to propose the first criminal fingerprint identification. He was able to identify a woman by the name of Rojas, who had murdered her two sons, and cut her own throat in an attempt to place blame on another. REFERENCES 1. Pillay, V.V. Textbook of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology. 15th ed. Hyderabad: Paras Medical Publishers, 2009: Kanchan, T. Chattopadhyay, S. Distribution of Fingerprint Patterns among Medical Students. Journal of Indian Acade-my of Forensic Medicine, 2006; 28(2): Vij, K. Textbook of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology. 3rd ed. New Delhi: Elsevier, 2005: Bonnevie, K. (1924), Studies on papillary patterns of human fingers, J. Genet., 15, Cummins, H.H. (1926), Epidermal ridge configurations in developmental defects, with particular references to the ontogenetic factors which condition ridge direction, American J. Anat., 38, Penrose, L.S. (1969), Dermatoglyphics, Sci. Am., December, Babler, W.J. (1987), Prenatal development of dermatoglyphic patterns: associations with epidermal ridge volar pad and bone morphology, Collegium Antropologicum, 11, Penrose, L.S. and O'Hara, P.T. (1973), The development of epidermal ridges, J. Medical Genet., 10,

9 9. Smith, C.A.B. (1979), Note on the forms of dermatoglyphic patterns, in Dermatoglyphics Fifty Years Later, Vol. XV, No. 6, W. Wertelecki, C.C. Plato, and N.W. Paul, Eds., New York: Alan R. Liss, pp Smith, W.C., Kinney, R.W., and DePartee, D.G. (1993), Latent fingerprints a forensic approach, J. Forensic Identification, 43, Mardia, K.V., Li, Q., and Hainsworth, T.J. (1992), On the Penrose hypothesis on fingerprint patterns, J. Math. Appl. Med. Biol., 9, Babler, W.J. (1991), Embryologic development of epidermal ridges and their configurations, In Dermatoglyphics Science in Transition, Vol. 27 (2), C.C. Plato, R.M. Garruto, B.A. Schaumann, and N.W. Paul, Eds., New York: Wiley-Liss, pp Holt, S.B. (1968), The Genetics of Dermal Ridges, Vol. 492, I. Newton Kugelmass, Ed., Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. 14. Mavalwala, J. (1977), Dermatoglyphics, an International Bibliography, Chicago: Mouton Publishers. 15. Wertelecki, W., Plato, C.C., and Paul, N.W., Eds. (1979), Dermatoglyphics Fifty Years Later, Vol. XV, No. 6, New York: Alan R. Liss. 16. Loesch, D.Z. (1973), Minutiae and clinical genetics, J. Mental Deficiency Res., 17, Loesch, D.Z. (1983), Quantitative Dermatoglyphics: Classification, Genetics and Pathology, Oxford: Oxford University Press. 18. Plato, C.C., Garruto, R.M., Schaumann, B.A., and Paul, N.W., Eds. (1991), Dermatoglyphics Science in Transition, Vol. 27 (2), New York: Wiley-Liss. 19. Durham, N.M., Fox, K., and Plato, C.C., Eds. (2000), The State of Dermatoglyphics: the Science of Finger and Palm Prints, Vol. 2, New York: E. Mellen Press. 20. Okajima, M. (1984), Quantitative and genetic features of epidermal ridge minutiae on the palm of twins, Hum. Heredity, 34, Okajima, M. and Newell-Morris, L. (1988), Development of dermal ridges on the volar skin of fetal pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemastrina), Am. J. Anat., 183, Loesch, D.Z. (1973), Minutiae and clinical genetics, J. Mental Deficiency Res., 17, Loesch, D.Z. (1983), Quantitative Dermatoglyphics: Classification, Genetics and Pathology, Oxford: Oxford University Press. 24. Okajima, M. (1970), Frequency of forks in epidermal-ridge minutiae on the finger print, Am. J. Phys. Anthropology, 32, Okajima, M. (1975a), Development of dermal ridges in the fetus, J. Medical Genet., 12, Okajima, M. (1975b), Technical aspects of dermatoglyphic examination in primates, in Contemporary Primatology: Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress of Primatology, S. Kondo, M. Kawai, and A. Ehara, Eds., New York: S. Karger, pp Dankmeijer, J., Waltman, J.M., and De Wilde, A.G. (1980), Biological foundations for forensic identifications based on fingerprints, Acta Morphol. Neerl.-Scand., 18, Okajima, M. (1977), Epidermal-ridge minutia in the hallucal area, Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, 57, Okajima, M. (1982), A methodological approach to the development of epidermal ridges on the dermal surface of fetuses, in Progress in Dermatoglyphic Research, Vol. 84, C.S. Bartsocas, Ed., New York: Alan R. Liss, pp Okajima, M. (1984), Quantitative and genetic features of epidermal ridge minutiae on the palm of twins, Hum. Heredity, 34, Okajima, M. and Newell-Morris, L. (1988), Development of dermal ridges on the volar skin of fetal pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemastrina), Am. J. Anat., 183, Ashbaugh, D.R. (1982a), Edgeology / poroscopy / ridgeology our next evaluative step, RCMP Gaz., 44 (2), 4 6; 45 (2), 12 17; 45 (3), Ashbaugh, D.R. (1982b), Poroscopy, Fingerprint Whorld, 19, Ashbaugh, D.R. (1991a), Ridgeology, J. Forensic Identification, 41, Ashbaugh, D.R. (1991b), Palmar flexion crease identification, J. Forensic Identification, 41, Ashbaugh, D.R. (1991c), Ridgeology modern evaluative friction ridge identification, Fingerprint Whorld, 17, Ashbaugh, D.R. (1992), Incipient ridges and the clarity spectrum, J. Forensic Identification, 42, Wendt, G. (1956), Zwillingsuntersuchungen über Zwischenlinien und weisse Linien im Abdruck der menschlichen Fingerbeere, Acta Genet., 6, Stücker, M., Geil, M., Hyeck, S., Hoffman, K., Rochling, A., Memmel, U., and Altmezer, P. (2001), Interpapillary lines the variable part of the human fingerprint, J.Forensic Sci., 46,

10 39. Ashbaugh, D.R. (1992), Incipient ridges and the clarity spectrum, J. Forensic Identification, 42, Ashbaugh, D.R. (1999a), A science in transition, in First International Conference on Forensic Human Identification in the Next Millennium, London: The Forensic Science Service. 41. Ashbaugh, D.R. (1999b), Qualitative-Quantitative Friction Ridge Analysis An ntroduction to Basic and Advanced Ridgeology, V.J. Geberth, Ed., Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Fingerprint. 42. Puri, D.K.S. (1962), Réflexions dactyloscopiques, Revue Internationale Police Criminelle, 17 (160), Puri, D.K.S. (1964), Complément à quelques réflexions dactyloscopiques, Revue Internationale Police Criminelle, 19 (178), Ferguson, N. (1992), Minutiæ discrepancy in the delta area, Fingerprint Whorld, 18, Leo, W.F. (1998), Distortion versus dissimilarity in friction skin identification, J. Forensic Identification, 48, Saviano, J. (2003), The significance of using Level 1 detail in latent print examinations, J. Forensic Identification, 53, Bertillon, A. (1885) Instructions signaletiques, Imprimerie administrative, Melun, France. 48. Bertillon, A. (1912), Notes et observations médico-légales les empreintes digitales, Archives d Anthropologie Criminelle, de Médecine Légale et de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique, 27, Locard, E. (1903), La dactyloscopie: identification des récidivistes par les empreintes digitales, Mémoire de l'académie des Sciences, Belles-lettres et Arts de Lyon, Locard, E. (1906), Le sixième congrès d'anthropologie criminelle, Archives d'anthropologie Criminelle, de Médecine Légale et de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique, 21, Locard, E. (1909), L'Identification des Récidivistes, Paris: A. Maloine. 52. Locard, E. (1911), Les laboratoires de police, Archives Internationales de Médecine Légale,2, Locard, E. (1912), L'identification des criminels par l'examen des glandes sudoripares, Province Médicale, Almog, J., Hirshfeld, A., and Klug, J.T. (1982), Reagents for the chemical development of latent fingerprints: synthesis and properties of some ninhydrin analogues, J. Forensic Sci., 27, Almog, J. (1986), personal communication. 56. Almog, J., Hirshfeld, A., Sterling, J., and Leonov, D. (1991), Aminoninhydrins: fingerprint reagents with direct fluorogenic activity preliminary studies, J. Forensic Sci., 36, Almog, J. (1992), personal communication. 58. Almog, J., Hirshfeld, A., Franck, A., Grant, Z., and Ittah, Y. (1992), 5-Methylthio-ninhydrin and related compounds: a novel class of fluorogenic fingerprint reagents, J. Forensic Sci., 37, Almog, J., Springer, E., Wiesner, S., Frank, A., Khodzhaev, O., Lidor, R., Bahar, E., Varkony, H., Dayan, S., and Rozen, S. (1999), Latent fingerprint visualisation by 1,2- ndanedione and related compounds: preliminary results, J. Forensic Sci., 44, Almog, J., Sears, V.G., Springer, E., Hewlett, D.F., Walker, S., Wiesner, S., Lidor, R., and Bahar, E. (2000), Reagents for the chemical development of latent fingerprints: scope and limitations of benzo[f]ninhydrin in comparison to ninhydrin, J. Forensic Sci., 45, Anon. (1970), Convention action, Identification News, 20, Anon. (1971), Standards committee, Identification News, 21, Anon. (1972), An analysis of standards in fingerprint identification, FBI Law Enforcement Bull., 39, Anon. (1973), International Association for Identification: standardization committee report, FBI Law Enforcement Bull., 42, Anon. (1979), Resolution VII, Identification News, 29, Anon. (1980), Resolution VII amended, Identification News, 30, Anon. (1992), Editorial comment, J. Forensic Identification, 42, Anon. (2002), European fingerprint standards (a pointless exercise), Fingerprint Whorld, 28,